Implications of wider issues

Factors to consider whilst investigating design possibilities

1. Superficially, a manufacturer would like to be unencumbered at the design stage, with free reign to devise new products without limitation. Engineers have a wider social and environmental responsibility to take a broader and longer-term view, however.

3.1a Understand how social, ethical and environmental issues have influenced and been impacted by past and present developments in design practice and thinking, including:

Social, Moral, Ethical and Environmental considerations for Design Engineers

1. Social: How the use of a material/manufacturing method/product could impact on people's lives and the lives of the immediate community.
2. E.g. A charity might choose to give 3D printers to developing countries to for the purpose of 3D printing prosthetic limbs. Social considerations/impacts of this might be...
   1. Allows increased social interaction within the community for the recipient.
   2. Might enable them to work, and in doing so be able to support their family financially.
   3. Possibility of the user being ostracised by the community if they feel that the use of prosthetics is culturally inappropriate.
   4. Could giving the recipient a sense of belonging and allowing them to do jobs within the community.
3. E.g. Social issues that might be considered when developing a new outdoor barbeque might be...
   1. Increase in emotional health as cooking is considered by many as being a relaxing activity
   2. Increased interaction with friends, as people will often come together to eat
   3. BBQing is a relatively slow way to cook, so families will spend more time together while their meal is prepared
   4. Learning to BBQ well provides an opportunity to improve cooking skills
   5. There may be perceived health benefits of being outside stood up / grilling food rather than other cooking methods that are less active.
4. Moral: Morals are the guiding principles that the engineers are working to; these can then be used to help frame ethical considerations (which are generally more practical). One way to consider these issues around a new product would be to consider the potential for someone do something that might be considered undesirable or illegal. Moral issues can also relate to the choice of materials and components and the manufacturing techniques used. Whilst these link into environmental issues, it can be immoral to make choices that disregard the negative impact the development of a product could have.
   1. With the 3D printed prosthetics scenario, the charity/company would argue that their aim is to help recipients of new limbs lead as normal life as possible.
   2. ...but there is a risk that the printer could be used to produce other items (e.g. weapons) than those for which it is intended which they would need to be aware of.
   3. Kitchen knives can be used to prepare food, hunt and to create art by carving. They can also be used to commit crimes; a designer could look to avoid putting sharp points, to make knives less likely to be used for stabbing, for instance. The safety of the user is a moral responsibility of the designer.
5. Cultural: Cultural issues can arise when a new product does not take into account the fact that a particular shape, colour or name can have very different meanings to different groups of people. Designers need to take care not to offend groups of people with different traditions and beliefs. For example, red is the colour for mourning in Africa whereas in China it is considered to be lucky. A careful choice of name, shape and colour can help promote a sense of unity between different global cultures and is particularly relevant if the product is to be sold in a country with a multi-cultural society. Some examples of moral considerations are...
6. Ethical: Considering the impact of a product and whether it is morally correct to produce it. Ethics aim to answer the question, "What should I/we do?". A company/person's decisions are shaped by their values, principles, and purpose rather than unthinking habits, social conventions, or self-interest. Ethical considerations for the 3D printed prosthetics scenario above could be...
   1. Who pays for the prosthetics and what should the cost be?
   2. What is the product life span and who decides when it is changed?
   3. Who decides who is given one?
   4. At what age should they be given a prosthetic or it be taken away?
   5. What physiotherapy training will they get when receiving a prosthetic?
   6. Who will service the machines? Who will pay for repairs? The new filament?
7. Environmental: Considering what the impacts (good and bad) will be as the result of taking a particular course of action. E.g. A new laptop involves sourcing new raw materials, transporting these to a factory (in lorries), energy-intensive processing to manufacture them, transport again on lorries then cargo containers then lorries to get them to the consumers who are to use them. Once in use, they will consume electrical energy throughout their life-span. At end-of-life, the various components (made from a variety of materials) risk ending up in landfill unless they can be recycled.
8. Marketing: Design Engineers will also need to have regard as to what will need thinking about when it comes time to try and sell the product. Especially if the product isn't entirely new, but trying to find it's place in an existing market place. They will often seek to find a Unique Selling Point (USP) that makes the new product stand out from the competition.
9. E.g. Marketing issues that might be considered when developing a new outdoor barbeque might be...
   1. Current culinary trends; gas or charcoal? Recently, there's increased interest in vegetarian/vegan diets. This could be used in marketing materials.
   2. Age range of the target audience.
   3. The size of the market along with their disposable income to spend on outdoor cooking. This will determine the best price point - is a cheap product most likely to sell, or a higher-priced model made with premium materials and which has lots of extra features?
   4. Understand the end goal of that market group with regards to BBQ-ing. What is the customer looking for? A quick and compact BBQ for occasional use, or something large designed to cater for large numbers and be used regularly?
   5. The life span of the BBQ, enabling it to be sold with a long warranty
   6. Any potential for accessories that be sold to compliment and extend the functionality of the BBQ (e.g. a pizza stone insert, rotisserie for cooking chickens, etc)

• Practice question: Discuss how the engineer’s responsibility extends beyond meeting the needs of the consumer and manufacturer.
• Practice question: Many UK-based companies manufacture their electronic products in other countries. Discuss the moral and/or ethical considerations of the globalisation of product manufacture.

i. Consideration of lifecycle assessment (LCA) at all stages of a product’s life from raw material to disposal

1. Life cycle assessment is a methodology for assessing environmental impacts associated with all the stages of the life cycle of a commercial product, process, or service. For instance, in the case of a manufactured product, environmental impacts are assessed from raw material extraction and processing, through the product's manufacture, distribution and use, to the recycling or final disposal of the materials composing it.
   1. Acquisition of raw materials. All products or systems are created from raw materials. Consider the energy needed to extract oil, ores and timber. Look at the environmental impact of mining, deforestation and other issues related to the extraction of raw materials.
   2. Transporting raw materials. Consider how raw materials are transported nationally and internationally and examine the environmental impact of, for example, oil tanker disasters and pollution of the air by fuel emissions. Using electric vehicles is cleaner for road users but the generation of electricity to recharge vehicle batteries impacts on the environment.
   3. Processing raw materials. Consider the energy requirements and environmental effects of transforming raw materials by chemical or physical processing methods, for example, smelting and converting ores into usable materials, making polymers from oil.
   4. Manufacturing the product. Most products require machine processing. The manufacturing industry requires energy for machines, lighting, heating, etc. Textile products are often dyed during manufacture and the chemicals used may have an environmental impact. Often manufacturing doesn’t take place in the same area as material processing. Transporting materials, components and completed products for distribution involves considerable energy use and impacts on the environment.
   5. Using the product Some products require no further energy in usage. Many products, such as cars, washing machines and electrical items use significant amounts of energy. Some products, such as milk bottles, are reused; energy is used for cleaning before refilling. Detergents used may have an environmental impact.
   6. Disposal and recycling The collection of waste requires energy. Incineration centres use energy to dispose of waste, although many reclaim the energy created by incineration for useful purposes. Landfill systems may impact on the environment. Often recycling materials can use significant amounts of energy, but this will use less raw materials and conserve valuable natural resources.

LCA Case Study: A fridge

1. An LCA for a domestic refrigerator might consider...
   1. Sourcing materials
      1. Energy needed to extract or recycle metals (steel, aluminium copper) and polymers – pollution and waste products.
      2. Manufacture of harmful/toxic refrigerant gasses – energy used, pollutants created.
      3. Manufacture of electronic components – chemicals extracted, energy, pollution.
   2. Product assembly
      1. Energy to press steel sheets into shape.
      2. Energy to form thermoplastics into shape.
      3. Manufacture of PCBs – energy, pollution
      4. Filling of refrigerant gas – risk of leaks.
      5. Product assembly in factory – energy for lighting/heating/machinery.
   3. Use
      1. Energy used during product use.
      2. Standby energy – product always on – considerable energy used over product lifetime.
      3. Energy rating of product.
      4. Improved thermal insulation of fridge to reduce energy requirements.
   4. End of life
      1. Risk of release of refrigerant gas into environment.
      2. Much of product could be recycled.
      3. Take back scheme by manufacturer.
      4. Risk of dumping in landfill.
      5. Gas can be safely removed and reused.
      6. Thermal insulation materials can be difficult to recycle.
      7. Steel can be recycled.
      8. Use of RoHS directive should reduce use of harmful materials
   5. Transport
      1. At all stages, transportation to move materials/parts/products around.
      2. Globalisation may involve huge distances being travelled around world.
      3. Fuel used, pollution produced.
      4. Bulky product so takes up a lot of space on transport vessel.
2. You can read more about LCA in the textbook on page 70.
3. You can see a real-life UK government-funded LCA for a plastic bag here.

ii. The source and origin of materials; and the ecological and social footprint of materials

1. LCA is an analysis of the overall impact of a new product throughout its life. This starts with compiling an inventory of relevant inputs and outputs, then evaluating the potential environmental impacts associated with those inputs and outputs and interpreting the results of the inventory and impact phases in relation to the objectives of the study.
2. A product starts life as raw materials. Will these be taken from the ground (e.g. an iron ore mine) or take from recycled sources (e.g. recycled aluminium cans)? To dig new material from the ground will require considerable energy to drive plant machinery, to be refined into pure material and then will need shipping to the factory for production.
3. Once built, products tend to consume additional resources. A car, for instance will need a constant stream of petrol or diesel – how much will depend on the engine capacity and how efficient it is. The car will also need new tyres, exhaust pipes and other predictable spare parts during its lifetime.
4. At ‘end of life’, a product should be designed to be as recyclable as possible. A dishwasher can be dismantled into a set of mild and stainless steel parts which can be recycled; plastic parts can be sorted by plastic type and recycled and so on. By using materials which are known to be readily recyclable, the amount which goes to landfill can be minimised.
5. Further reading: http://www.gdrc.org/uem/lca/lca-define.html

Social Footprint

1. A company’s social footprint measures their effect on people and communities. Impacts can be both positive and negative.
2. General examples include...
   1. Mining chemicals to make batteries can scar the environment.
   2. Building of factories to manufacture the product can have a negative impact on the landscape and environment.
   3. Building of factories to manufacture/distribute the product can lead to the creation of jobs in the local community.
3. For a more specific example, a Textile factory can have a negative impact on communities in a variety of ways, including:
   1. Noise: Knitting and weaving manufacturing can be loud
   2. Waste disposal: this must be dealt with responsibly, especially any hazardous chemicals involved in cotton production.
   3. Child labour: the use of children in textile production remains a challenge for the clothing industry. Fibre dust - the dust released in textile processing can cause respiratory diseases for those in close proximity
   4. Worker’s rights: consideration needs to be given to the working conditions and pay of skilled and unskilled textile workers

Ecological footprint

1. An ecological footprint measures the impact of human activity on the environment and how much natural resource is needed.
2. Considering the use of timber (for example), the ecological footprint of this might include...
   1. Timber is a natural material which must be grown in forests, it can take up a substantial area of land to grow and be cultivated. Whilst the production of timber is nearly carbon neutral, energy is needed

to process and transport the timber to the market source.

1. 1. Whilst timbers can take several decades to grow, softwoods grow significantly faster than hardwoods. Therefore the use of softwoods in the construction and furniture industry produces a smaller ecological footprint.
   2. Throughout the production of products the waste material created from the various processes is often used for fuel or for the production of manufactured materials i.e. MDF.
2. A growing population means that more raw products are needed to fulfil their textiles needs. Ecological impacts of textiles might include...
   1. Farming: Growing natural fibres such as cotton can lead to the degradation of soil. This can lead farmers to expand into other areas, destroying natural habitats. Cotton production and processing uses a lot of water, so rivers are often diverted, which has a severe impact on ecosystems such as the Indus Delta in Pakistan. Use of fertilisers and pesticides in cotton production can cause pollution in rivers and drinking water, causing health concerns for workers and local wildlife. Rearing animals, such as sheep or alpacas, for their wool also leads to expanding land requirements, which can cause deforestation and loss of habitat.
   2. Drilling: Drilling for oil to produce man-made synthetic textiles requires large storage areas and refining plants to change the oil into the materials needed for manufacturing. This process can be harmful to the environment. Oil is non-renewable and, when refined, produces fabrics that do not biodegrade easily.
3. Whenever environmental impact is to be reduced, ‘the 6 Rs’ can be addressed to ensure an in-depth analysis has been done. The 6 Rs can be considered by the designer, the manufacturer and the consumer to reduce that negative impact on the environment.
   1. Reduce the number of the amount of energy or materials used during production
   2. Reuse products rather than buying new ones
   3. Recycle into other products
   4. Rethink production techniques to conserve power, water and fuel emissions, eg the development of more environmentally friendly colouring techniques results in less contaminated waste water.
   5. Refuse to buy products that have been aren’t ‘fair trade’ or that have excessive packaging.
   6. Repair broken products, reducing waste and saving energy on production.
4. Further reading here

iii. The depletion and effects of using natural sources of energy and raw materials

1. As you will have been taught in science lessons, any finite resource which needs to be dug from the ground is classed as non-renewable. Products should be designed to use the minimum necessary amount of material and, as discussed above, should come from recycled sources as far as possible to make the most efficient use possible of available resource.
2. By using renewable energy sources (E.g. Wind/solar/geothermal/tidal) wherever possible, the rate of drain of non-renewable sources can be limited. Unfortunately, renewable sources tend to be dependent on variables such as whether its windy, meaning that it is difficult to rely solely on these as the primary source of energy for the plant.

iv. Planned obsolescence

1. This is the process of designing a product with an artificially limited useful life. This forces consumers to shorten the replacement cycle of their product and encourage future purchases of a new model. This can be achieved by ceasing production of spare parts for a specific vacuum cleaner, making a product difficult/impossible to repair, having clothes which go out of fashion, etc.
2. Further reading here

v. Buying trends

1. Trends among the public can heavily influence engineers as the rush to create products to satisfy those looking for the ‘next big thing’. The appetite for electric vehicles demonstrated by Toyota with their Prius along with the launch of Tesla motors high-performance cars has led to all the main car manufacturers developing and launching their own EVs in order to bring about the next major revolution in the car industry – a sector which has now moving away from a century-old technology to embrace a more environmentally friendly approach to transport.

environmental incentives and directives

1. Most World governments believe that global warming is a man-made problem, and that it is wise to lower carbon footprints. Governments can help modify the behaviour of the public by creating incentives to be more green.
2. The UK Government incentivised the installation of solar panels on homes, offering generous feed-in rates to early adopters who could enjoy considerable savings on their energy bills.
3. Building regulations can be changed to insist that new homes are insulated to a specific level, legislation can outlaw incandescent bulbs for homes to be replaced with more energy efficient LED ones and vacuum cleaners have had the maximum power of their motors capped.

vi. Environmental incentives and directives

1. Environmental tax incentives encourage businesses to operate in a more environmentally friendly way. There are taxes and schemes for different types and size of business.
2. Examples of these incentives are:
   1. you use a lot of energy because of the nature of your business, you could get tax relief for using more renewable energy sources.
   2. you’re a small business that doesn’t use much energy.
   3. you buy energy-efficient technology for your business.

Environmental directives

1. Waste of electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) such as computers, TV-sets, fridges and cell phones is one the fastest growing waste streams in the EU, with some 9 million tonnes generated in 2005, and expected to grow to more than 12 million tonnes by 2020.
2. WEEE is a complex mixture of materials and components that because of their hazardous content, and if not properly managed, can cause major environmental and health problems.
3. Moreover, the production of modern electronics requires the use of scarce and expensive resources (e.g. around 10% of total gold worldwide is used for their production). To improve the environmental management of WEEE and to contribute to a circular economy and enhance resource efficiency the improvement of collection, treatment and recycling of electronics at the end of their life is essential.
4. The RoHS Directive 2002/95/EC on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in such equipment aims to reduce the amount of harmful substances at source. This should ensure that they are not leached into the environment by equipment, some of which will, inevitably, not be recycled.

Factors to consider when developing design solutions for manufacture

1. There are three different scales of production: one-off, batch and mass/continuous flow. Products will be engineered differently depending on how the product is to be made.

3.2a Awareness of the responsibilities and principles of designing for manufacture (DFM), including:

i. Planning for accuracy and efficiency through testing and prototyping

1. Prior to production, a large number of prototypes will be produced and experimented with. Each time a new sub-system is created, it can then be examined for ways to further improve it. Can the parts be made smaller? Are there empty spaces inside the housing (voids) which parts/wiring can be moved into? Can the internal parts be made thinner/lighter without affecting performance or durability? Thorough repeated testing can help answer these questions.

ii. Being aware of issues in relation to different scales of production

1. In a one-off product, only a single item is to be produced. Products made like this include catwalk clothes, wedding cakes, bespoke jewellery and prototypes for new products. Products made in this way are commonly made using hand-tools (e.g. drills, saws, screwdrivers, sheets of sandpaper), to allow a high quality finish. Items made this way will be inconsistent in their accuracy, given human margins of error.
2. In a batch-production system, a specific number of items is made. In a bakery, a batch of 50 buns might be made, or a run of 1000 plastic buckets might be produced by injection moulding. Whether large or small, the defining characteristic is the finite number. In order to make batches which are consistent, jigs and formers are often used. Methods such as vacuum forming or laser-cutting may be deployed in order to facilitate the rapid production of parts. This may be coupled with some hand techniques in order to fabricate the finished product. An advantage of batch production setups is that they typically allow the flexibility to change the setup (e.g. re-design a part, change the product to be made) quickly.
3. In mass (or continuous flow) production, the product in question is made all day, every day, non-stop (aside from scheduled breaks for maintenance). In order to achieve this and to maximise both output speed, accuracy and quality of the finished product, the majority of processes will be automated to the highest possible extent.

iii. Designing for repair and maintenance

1. In commercial products (and many domestic ones), it is imperative that the designer recognises that their product will fail from time to time, necessitating parts being replaced in order to bring the device back online. In order to minimise the amount of time it takes to repair, designers can take several steps: Add removable access panels to the product, use generic parts (e.g. stepper motors) and ensuring that internal components can be easily removed (e.g. with bolts).

iv. Designing with consideration of product life

1. Some products are designed to be ‘single-shot’, such as a promotional novelty light-up toy. Items such as this can be glued together with batteries sealed inside, as they only need to last a few hours. Other products such as cars will potentially run for several decades, and as such will need to be designed so that every component can be removed and replaced within a few hours.

3.2b Awareness of product lifecycles that extend useful product life through planning for and consideration of maintenance, repair, upgrades, remanufacture and recycling systems

1. As discussed above, products’ lifespans will be considered as part of the design process. Maintenance and repair are discussed above. Creating upgrade options for products allows their useful life to be extended; this can be seen with the introduction of the VR headset for the PS4 console or upgrades to pre-existing London underground carriages in order to make them more attractive and comfortable.
2. Remanufacturing is where an end-of-life product returns to the manufacturer. The product is then stripped down and re-build using new parts where necessary until the product is restored to an ‘as-new’ condition. These are then sold as remanufactured, often more cheaply than purchasing a new item. Examples include clutches for cars and Macbook Pro laptops from Apple. There is an environmental advantage to this too, as fewer new parts need to be manufactured to produce the ‘new’ part.

3.2c Demonstrate an understanding of how environmental factors impact on:

ii. The disposal of waste, surplus materials and components, by-products of production

1. including pollution related to energy

iii. Cost implications related to materials and process

1. Discussed above. Taking materials from the ground involves high cost at every turn: expensive plant machinery, manpower to operate it, the purchasing of the land to be mined, refinery costs to process ore into pure materials, the purchase/hire of lorries and people to drive them and then the cost of a factory (and workers) to manufacture the finished product. Once made, lorries/ships/planes are needed again to transport the good to shops for consumers.
2. At an energy consumption level, digging ore from a quarry consumes large amounts of electricity and diesel/gas for machinery. Once extracted, ore needs transporting to a refinery. Heating ore to a molten state to separate pure metals requires further energy and then transporting the resulting material across the Planet to a factory for machining represents a further use of fossil fuels. Wherever possible, sourcing recycled materials that have already been obtained can limit further carbon emissions, although this also requires some processing and consumes energy.
3. At end-of-life, the objective of the engineering team will be to make their products as close to 100% recyclable as possible. When manufacturers built products (especially in a mass production environment) in the past, production teams would ensure that sufficient component parts would be kept in stock to avoid running out and having to cease production. Unfortunately, this meant that when a product came to the end of its run, large numbers of bespoke component parts would be left which would be unusable for any future purpose, often needing to either go to landfill or to be recycled.

3.2d Demonstrate an understanding of sustainability issues relating to industrial manufacture, including:

i. Fair trade and the Ethical Trade Initiative (ETI)

• Fair Trade is both a movement and a certification system that aims to give farmers and workers in developing countries a fairer deal for their products. When you see the Fair Trade stamp on items like chocolate, it indicates that the producers have received a minimum, stable price for their goods as well as an additional 'Fair Trade Premium', which can be invested in local community projects such as schools or medical facilities. Beyond pricing, Fair Trade also promotes safe working conditions, protects workers' rights, and supports environmental sustainability. Read more about Fair trade here.
• The Ethical Trade Initiative (ETI) is a leading alliance of companies, trade unions, and non-governmental organizations that promotes respect for workers’ rights around the globe. It focuses on improving conditions in global supply chains by encouraging companies to adopt and implement the ETI Base Code—an internationally recognized set of labour standards drawn from the International Labour Organization (ILO). Members of the ETI commit to working collaboratively, conducting regular assessments, and taking steps to address issues such as low wages, unsafe workplaces, and discrimination. Through these efforts, the ETI aims to foster more responsible business practices, ensuring that workers receive fair treatment and decent working conditions. Read more about the ETI here

ii. Economic issues and globalisation

1. Globalisation refers to the increasing integration and interdependence of countries and people around the world. This process is driven by the flow of goods, services, information, and cultural influences across borders. It is made possible by advances in technology, transportation, and communication, which allow businesses to operate internationally and people to connect across long distances. Globalisation can lead to economic growth, wider access to products, and cultural exchange, but it also raises concerns about inequality, exploitation, and the loss of local traditions.

iii. Material sustainability and optimisation, availability, recycling and conservation schemes, such as:

1. exploring the impact and use of eco-materials. Pages 2-3 of this document give a definition and examples.
2. exploring how materials can be up-cycled. Up-cycling is the process of taking a product which would ordinarily be thrown away, and re-working it to create a new (wanted) product. Doing this extends the life of the product and prevents that item from going to landfill. Examples of this can be seen all over the web, and range in their complexity. Cutting the top off an old water bottle allows the bottom half to be used as a plant-pot or for storing pencils in, for instance. Others have taken old lego-bricks, drilled holes through them and threaded them to create jewellery, or cutting oil drums in half then adding steel legs to create barbeques.

3.3a. Demonstrate an understanding of how to achieve an optimum use of materials and components, including:

i. The cost of materials and/or components

1. When designing new products, it is desirable to use the least amount of material possible to achieve the task at hand.
2. Some materials are more costly than others – but why? Let’s consider woods and man-made boards (e.g. plywood, cardboard, MDF). MDF and chipboard are two of the cheapest man-made boards to purchase. These are made from roughly broken up chips of scrap wood (chipboard) or waste sawdust from working with wood products which are mixed up with glue and pressed into sheets. As they can be made from any scrap wood, they are very low-cost to manufacture.
3. Pine (a softwood, popular for making furniture) is also cheap, and provides an attractive grain in its finished product. Pine grows very quickly and therefore new stocks of pine can be readily produced, reducing its cost. Oak (a hardwood), on the other hand grows very slowly, but produces a denser, stronger wood with an attractive colour. Because of this, it is more expensive to farm and this affects its price.

ii. Stock sizes and forms available

1. Although materials are often chosen first, sometimes it is the shape and process which is the limiting factor. The availability and stock forms of materials also affect price, as commonly available forms are more cost effective than special sizes.
2. They are made in quantity, so bulk purchasing can mean less transportation socts and this can also benefit the environment.

iii. Sustainable production

1. When selecting machine screws to bolt two pieces of 5mm Acrylic together, the engineer might select an M3x12 machine screw (3mm diameter, 12mm long). This would give 2mm protruding from the back of the last piece of acrylic which an M3 nut can be threaded onto to hold the pieces together. If a longer machine screw were selected, the extra protruding material is effectively waste.
2. When designing a light-weight box to store nails on a shelf in a workshop, the designer might elect to use MDF sheet (very low cost material; made from sawdust and urea formaldehyde). This is available in a number of industry-standard thicknesses: 3mm, 6mm, 9mm, 12mm, 18mm and 25mm. Any of these could be used, but the designer would probably select 3mm for this specific application – the box won’t have to carry a large amount of weight. If they were designing the shelf (and so needed more strength), 18mm or 25mm would be more appropriate.
3. There are lots of different materials; you don’t need to have an encyclopaedic knowledge of these, but you should be able to identify a few hardwoods, softwoods, man-made boards, ferrous metals, non-ferrous metals, thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics. [[1][www.BourneToInvent.com]] has plenty on this in its theory section on resistant materials.

3.4a. Understand the issues related to the effective and responsible distribution of products, including:

iv. Global production and delivery

1. When a business finds themselves shipping large amounts of a product, a strategy is needed to ensure that costs are kept down to ensure that profit is maximised. A number of approaches could be taken:
2. A single, large distribution centre located in the middle of the region/country that the business most commonly serves. The business will only have a single set of heating, lighting, water, broadband, etc to pay for and a single set of employees to organise and care for. Stock all arrives at a single point, and logistics are straightforward. Unfortunately, if more customers start to appear further afield, transport costs start to increase. Additionally, if there is a problem at the centre (e.g. IT failure), the entire shipping operation ceases to function.
3. Several smaller centres are another option (there’s an Ikea distribution centre in Peterborough, for instance). These provide some redundancy in the event of a system failure, but for a smaller business, each centre many not be able to hold as much stock as a larger one.
4. Things become more complex if/when a company chooses to start shipping internationally. If a company is producing bulky items (e.g. a car), sending to another country means putting products into steel shipping containers and having them travel on a boat to their destination. To get an item to/from China takes around 40-50 days; customers may not be willing to wait that long, and so additional distribution centres may be needed. Alternatively, businesses may elect to set up additional factories around the World to make the product(s) in the country they’ll be sold in (e.g. Coke).
5. Nice article on this here.

3.4b. Demonstrate an understanding of the implications of intellectual property (IP), registered designs, registered trademarks, copyright, design rights and patents, in relation to ethics in design practice and consumer rights.

1. Intellectual Property is something unique that someone physically creates (not merely an idea). A book isn’t IP, but the words within it are, for instance.
2. Registered designs allow designers to protect the look of a product to stop others from copying/stealing it. This gives the designer protection for 25 years.
3. Trademarks allow a company to distinguish their product from others' brands and prevents others from using their brand (e.g. Coke®, Apple®). It’s designed to protect consumers from counterfeiters, allowing the owner to take legal action against anyone using it.
   1. Used by a company or individual to identify their brand.
   2. Trademarks can be in the form of a word, name, song, or symbol.
   3. Trademarks can be registered as a logo, slogan, domain name, shape or sound.
   4. To register a trademark it must be unique and distinctive.
   5. Trademarks must be fair and accurate.
   6. Trademarks must be morally acceptable.
   7. Must be registered with the Intellectual Property Office (IPO).
   8. Must be renewed every 10 years.
4. Copyright protects business’ work for 70 years, to prevent others from using it without permission. It is automatic (you don’t need to apply) when you create literary/dramatic work, software, web content and broadcasts. Unless they have your permission to do so, others can’t copy, sell your work or put it online.
   1. A set of exclusive rights given to creators of original ideas, information or other intellectual works.
   2. Copyright material can only be copied, used or recreated with the owner’s permission.
   3. Copyright protection is automatic and no registration is needed.
   4. The work is often marked with the © symbol, used alongside the creator’s name and the date.
   5. Work is still protected even without the © symbol.
   6. Copyright does not protect the ideas for a piece of work.
   7. Copyright lasts for 70 years for most types of written work.
   8. Photographs are copyrighted for 25 years.
5. Registered Designs gives the designer ownership rights for the appearance of a product.
   1. Protects distinctive product shape, pattern or decoration.
   2. Protects distinctive visual features e.g. lines, contours, colours, materials.
   3. The design must be new and original.
   4. Must have a unique character, not resemble an existing design.
   5. Must be registered with the Intellectual Property Office (IPO).
   6. Must be renewed every 5 years.
6. Design rights automatically protect protect the creator of a design (unless a 3rd party commissions the work) for 10 years after the designs are created, to stop people copying your designs. While one does not need to register, doing to provides better protection.
   1. Design rights protect the configuration or shape of a product.
   2. They can be used to prevent copying of an original design without permission.
   3. Design rights do not protect the 2D aspects of the design, e.g. patterns.
   4. Design rights can be bought, sold or licensed.
   5. They stay in force for 10 years after first marketing of the product (or 15 years after creating the design).
   6. For the first 5 years, others are prevented from copying the design.
   7. For the remaining time the design is subject to a licence of right.
   8. Design rights only apply in the UK.
7. Patents are expensive and difficult to obtain, but they provide a way to protect an invention. A patent-holder can take legal action against anyone who makes, uses or sells your invention without your permission. Large corporations like Adobe hold many patents for different parts of their products to ensure they have a competitive advantage.
   1. Granted by the government, they offer strong protection.
   2. Difficult to obtain, involving long, expensive, technical processes.
   3. Inventors must publicise all details of the invention.
   4. Patent lawyers are often employed to write a strong patent.
   5. Protect against copying the technical and functional aspects of a design.
   6. Can cover how a device works and what materials are used.
   7. Protect designs and inventions for 20 years.
   8. The invention must be new.
   9. It must have an inventive step that is not obvious to someone with technical knowledge.
   10. The invention must be capable of being made.

3.5a. Understand wider issues relating to the selection of energy sources, storage, transmission and utilisation in order to select them appropriately for use.

1. Energy sources:
   1. Solar Energy.
   2. Wind Energy.
   3. Geothermal Energy.
   4. Hydrogen Energy.
   5. Tidal Energy.
   6. Wave Energy.
   7. Hydroelectric Energy.
   8. Biomass Energy.
2. Click [here https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/different-energy-sources.php] to read more about these sources.

Energy storage

1. Energy storage. Energy storage systems, also known as batteries or thermal stores, allow you to capture heat or electricity when it is readily available, typically from a renewables system, and save it until a time when it is useful to you.

Energy transmission

1. Electric power transmission is the bulk movement of electrical energy from a generating site, such as a power plant, to an electrical substation. The interconnected lines which facilitate this movement are known as a transmission network.

Energy utilisation

1. Energy utilization focuses on technologies that can lead to new and potentially more efficient ways of using electricity in residential, commercial and industrial settings—as well as in the transportation sector.

3.6a. Demonstrate an understanding of the need to incorporate knowledge from other experts and subjects to inform design and manufacturing decisions, including the areas of science and mathematics

1. When creating ambitious new products, teams of engineers, computer scientists, physicists and mathematicians will be required to work together. Each brings a unique perspective to help develop the design to be optimal – the computer scientist might advise on a better smartphone user-interface or way to make the product work more intuitively. The physicist may be able to suggest a design modification to make an engine part more lightweight and stronger at the same time. The mathematician may be able to identify a way to make a 3D printer operate more rapidly by suggesting an improved algorithm.

3.6b. Understand how undertaking primary and secondary research and being able to interpret technical data and information from specialist websites and publications supports design development

1. Primary research is that which the engineering team conduct themselves, such as an interview with users of an existing system or watching users of said system using their current system. This has the advantage of providing a ‘feel’ for the problem to be solved.
2. Secondary research is the process of gathering data that has already been produced: Company reports, web searches or datasheets for electronics parts. This allows users to learn about new design approaches, technological developments or the release of new parts which may be useful in designing a new system.

Practice Question

1. Designers and manufacturers should consider the social footprint and the ecological footprint of any materials they use.
   1. Describe how a social footprint is created by the manufacture of a product. [2]
   2. Describe the ecological footprint that results when using timber in products. [4]
   3. Discuss how a lifecycle assessment (LCA) would be carried out on a domestic refrigerator. Make reference to the following stages of the product’s life in your answer:
      1. manufacture;
      2. use;
      3. end of life. [8]
2. DesEng AS Practice paper 1, Q3.

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