Write Like A Political Scientist

Writing Frames

• 30-Mark Source Questions (Paper 1 - Question 1a or 1b / Paper 2 - Question 1a or 1b):

• 30-Mark Essay Questions (Paper 1 - Question 2a or 2b / Paper 2 - Question 2a or 2b / Paper 3 - Question 3a or 3b or 3c):

• 24-Mark Political Ideas Questions (Paper 1 - Question 3a or 3b / Paper 2 - Question 3a or 3b):

• 12-Mark Comparative Questions (Paper 3 - Question 1a or 1b):

• 12-Mark Comparative Theory Questions (Paper 3 - Question 2):

Evaluative Phrases

• “This is a strong argument because...”
• “This is a weak argument because…”
• “This claim can be effectively countered by…”
• “This claim can be countered, but rather poorly, by…”
• “This point stands up to scrutiny as…”
• “This point fails to stand up to scrutiny as…”
• “The underlying assumption behind this reason is a convincing one…”
• “The underlying assumption behind this reason is doubtful…”
• “The two assertions are equally balanced…”
• “It is difficult to choose between the evidence here…”

Key Terms

Spellings and use of capital letters ought to be noted.

• Democracy & Participation (Paper 1):
  • Democratic deficit: A flaw in the democratic process where decisions are taken by people who lack legitimacy, not having been appointed with sufficient democratic input or subject to accountability.
  • Direct democracy: All individuals express their opinions themselves and not through representatives acting on their behalf. This type of democracy emerged in Athens in classical times and direct democracy can be seen today in referendums.
  • Franchise/suffrage: Franchise and suffrage both refer to the ability/right to vote in public elections. Suffragettes were women campaigning for the right to vote on the same terms as men.
  • Legitmacy: The rightful use of power in accordance with pre-set criteria or widely-held agreements, such as a government’s right to rule following an election or a monarch’s succession based on the agreed rules.
  • Participation crisis: A lack of engagement by a significant number of citizens to relate to the political process either by choosing not to vote or to join or become members of political parties or to offer themselves for public office.
  • Lobbyist: A lobbyist is paid by clients to try to influence the government and/or MPs and members of the House of Lords to act in their clients’ interests, particularly when legislation is under consideration.
  • Pluralist democracy: A type of democracy in which a government makes decisions as a result of the interplay of various ideas and contrasting arguments from competing groups and organisations.
  • Representative democracy: A more modern form of democracy through which an individual selects a person (and/or political party) to act on their behalf to exercise political choice.
  • Think tanks: A body of experts brought together to collectively focus on a certain topic(s) – to investigate and offer solutions to often complicated and seemingly intractable economic, social or political issues.

• Political Parties (Paper 1):
  • Old Labour (social democracy): Key Labour principles embodying nationalisation, redistribution of wealth from rich to poor and the provision of continually improving welfare and state services, which largely rejected Thatcherite/free-market reforms or a Blairite approach.
  • New Labour(Third Way): A revision of the traditional Labour values and ideals represented by Old Labour. Influenced by Anthony Giddens, the ‘Third Way’ saw Labour shift in emphasis from a heavy focus on the working class to a wider class base, and a less robust alliance with the trade unions.
  • One Nation Conservatism: A paternalistic approach adopted by Conservatives under the leadership of Benjamin Disraeli in the 19th century and continued by David Cameron and Theresa May in the 21st century, that the rich have an obligation to help the poor.
  • New Right Conservatism: There are two elements – (i) the neo (or new) Conservatives who want the state to take a more authoritarian approach to morality and law and order and (ii) the neo-liberals who endorsed the freemarket approach and the rolling back of the state in people’s lives and businesses.
  • Classical Liberals: Classical liberalism is a philosophy developed by early liberals who believed that individual freedom would best be achieved with the state playing a minimal role.
  • Modern Liberals: Modern liberalism emerged as a reaction against free-market capitalism, believing this had led to many individuals not being free. Freedom could no longer simply be defined as ‘being left alone’.
  • Party Systems: The way or manner in which the political parties in a political system are grouped and structured. There are several variants that could apply to the UK, these include one-party dominant, two-party, two-and-a-half party and multi-party systems.
  • Left Wing: A widely-used term for those who desire change, reform and alteration to the way in which society operates. Often this involves radical criticisms of the capitalism made by liberal and socialist parties.
  • Right Wing: This term reflects support for the status quo, little or no change, stressing the need for order, stability and hierarchy – generally relates to Conservative parties.

• Electoral Systems (Paper 1):
  • First-past-the-post (FPTP): An electoral system where the person with the most number of votes is elected. Victory is achieved by having one more vote than other contenders – it is also called a plurality system.
  • Additional Member System (AMS): A hybrid electoral system that has two components or elements. The voter makes two choices. Firstly, the voter selects a representative on a simple plurality (FPTP) system then a second vote is apportioned to a party list for a second or ‘additional’ representative.
  • Single Transferable Vote (STV): This system allows voters to rank their voting preferences in numerical order rather than simply having one voting choice. In order to obtain a seat, a candidate must obtain a quota. After the votes are cast, those with the least votes are eliminated and their votes transferred and those candidates with excess votes above the quota also have their votes transferred.
  • Supplementary Vote(SV): This is a majoritarian system. The voter makes two choices (hence the term ‘supplementary’). If one candidate obtains over 50% on the first vote then the contest is complete, if no candidate attains this level, all but the top two candidates remain. Then the supplementary choices are re-distributed and whoever gets most votes from the remaining two, wins the seat.
  • Safe seat: A seat in which the incumbent has a considerable majority over the closest rival and which is largely immune from swings in voting choice. The same political party retains the seat from election to election. A majority of seats in UK Westminster constituencies are safe seats.
  • Marginal seat: A seat held by the incumbent with a small majority. There is no precise percentage or winning margin to which this aligns but a 10% margin would need only a swing of 5% to the rival party to take it. Marginal seats are important as they are where the outcomes of elections are decided. Only a minority of seats in UK Westminster constituencies are marginal.
  • Minority government: A government that enters office but which does not have a majority of seats in the legislature (Parliament). This makes passing legislation very difficult.
  • Coalition Government: A government that is formed of more than one political party. It is normally accompanied by an agreement over policy options and office of state, as was the Conservative-Liberal-Democrat coalition from 2010–2015.

• Voting Behaviour & the Media (Paper 1):
  • Class dealignment: The process where individuals no longer identify themselves as belonging to a certain class and for political purposes fail to make a class connection with their voting pattern.
  • Partisan dealignment: The process where individuals no longer identify themselves on a long-term basis by being associated with a certain political party.
  • Governing competency: The perceived ability of the governing party in office to manage the affairs of the state well and effectively. It can also be a potential view of opposition parties and their perceived governing competency if they were to secure office.
  • Disillusion & apathy: A process of disengagement with politics and political activity. Having no confident in politics and politicians as being able to solve issues and make a difference. Manifested in low turnout at elections and poor awareness of contemporary events.
  • Manifesto: In its manifesto, a political party will spell out in detail what actions and programmes it would like to put in place if it is successful in the next election – a set of promises for future action.
  • Mandate: The successful party following an election claims it has the authority (mandate) to implement its manifesto promises and also a general permission to govern as new issues arise.

• Conservatism (Paper 1):
  • Hierarchy: The Conservative belief that society is naturally organised in fixed tiers, where one’s position is not based on individual ability.
  • Authority: For Conservatives, this is the idea that people in higher positions in society are best able to make decisions in the interests of the whole society; authority thus comes from above.
  • Change to conserve: That society should adapt to changing circumstances rather than reject change outright and risk rebellion and/or revolution.
  • Atomism: That society is made up of self-interested and self-sufficient individuals (also known as egoistical individualism).
  • Noblesse oblige: The duty of the wealthy and privileged to look after those less fortunate.
  • Anti-permissiveness: A rejection of permissiveness, which is the belief that people should make their own moral choices, suggesting there is no objective right and wrong.
  • Radical: Belief whose ideas favour drastic political, economic and social change.
  • Human imperfection: The traditional conservative belief that humans are flawed in a number of ways which makes them incapable of making good decisions for themselves.
  • Laissez-faire: A preference towards minimal government intervention in business and the state.
  • Empiricism: The idea that knowledge comes from real experience and not from abstract theories.

• Liberalism (Paper 1):
  • Foundational equality: Rights that all humans have by virtue of being born which cannot be taken away (also known as natural rights and inalienable rights).
  • Formal equality: The idea that all individuals have the same legal and political rights in society.
  • Equality of opportunity: The idea that all individuals should have equal chances in life to rise and fall.
  • Social contract: The idea that the state/society is set up with agreement from the people to respect its laws which serve to protect them.
  • Meritocracy: A society organised on the basis that success is based on ability and hard work.
  • Mechanistic theory: The idea that the state was created by ‘man’ to serve the people and act in their interests.
  • Tolerance: A willingness to respect values, customs and beliefs with which one disagrees.
  • Limited government: The role of government is limited by checks and balances, and a separation of powers because of the corrupting nature of power.
  • Egoistical individualism: The idea that individual freedom is associated with self-interest and self-reliance (see also atomism).
  • Developmental individualism: The idea that individual freedom is linked to human flourishing.
  • Negative freedom: The absence of external constraints in society as well as no interference in the private sphere.
  • Positive freedom: The idea that freedom is about personal fulfilment and realisation of potential.
  • Laissez-faire capitalism: An economic system, organised by the market, where goods are produced for exchange and profit, and wealth is privately owned.
  • Keynesianism: An economic system that requires government involvement to stimulate the economy to achieve full employment and price stability.
  • Harm principle: The idea that individuals should be free to do anything except harm other individuals.
  • Minimal state: The idea that the role of the state must be restricted in order to preserve individual liberty.
  • Enabling state: A larger state that helps individuals to achieve their potential and be free.

• Socialism (Paper 1):

Useful Conjunctions

• Addition:
  • again
  • also
  • and
  • another
  • as well as
  • furthermore
  • in addition
  • moreover
  • too
  • what is more

• Cause and effect:
  • as a consequence
  • as a result
  • as long as
  • because
  • consequently
  • depending upon
  • inevitably
  • since
  • therefore
  • whenever

• Comparison:
  • by the same token
  • comparatively
  • congruently
  • correspondingly
  • equally
  • equivalently
  • in the same way
  • just as
  • likewise
  • similarly

• Concession:
  • admittedly
  • despite this
  • in any case
  • in spite of
  • nevertheless
  • notwithstanding
  • on the other hand
  • regardless
  • still
  • while it is true that

• Contrast:
  • alternatively
  • although
  • despite this
  • however
  • in contrast
  • on the contrary
  • on the other hand
  • otherwise
  • whereas
  • yet

• Emphasis:
  • above all
  • especially
  • in fact
  • in particular
  • indeed
  • more important(ly)
  • notably
  • significantly
  • specifically
  • undoubtedly

• Illustration:
  • essentially
  • for example
  • for instance
  • in actual fact
  • it became clear that
  • such as
  • this means that
  • this shows that
  • thus
  • to illustrate

• Summary and conclusion:
  • after all
  • finally
  • in conclusion
  • in short
  • in the end
  • on the whole
  • overall
  • throughout
  • to summarise
  • ultimately

Punctuation

• Colon:
  • Appearance: ":"
  • Use: a colon is used to list, join two clauses when the second cannot stand alone, and before a quotation or direct speech.
  • Examples:
    • You will need: a calculator, ruler and pen.
    • I knew what to do: admit I had no book.
    • Sir said: “Mark is a very able statistician.”

• Semi-Colon:
  • Appearance: ";"
  • Use: a semi-colon is used in between two equal clauses, which are closely related but could stand alone.
  • Examples:
    • Lizzie went to town; I stayed at home.
    • Terry hates spiders; he finds them creepy.
    • I love dogs; however, I dislike their smell.

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