==2016 Sample AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/b/b5/2018_AS_Question_and_Answer.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions and mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/c/c8/Design_Engineering_2016.pdf AS Paper] model solution

==2017 Sample papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/11/201x_Practice_Paper_B1_Questions.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/5/54/201x_Practice_Paper_B1_Answers.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme (pg. 21 onwards)
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/6/65/201x_Practice_Paper_B2_Questions.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/1d/201x_Practice_Paper_B2_Resources.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resources
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/34/201x_Practice_Paper_B2_Answers.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme (pg. 13 onwards)

==2018 Sample papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/2/29/201x_Practice_Paper_A1_Questions.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/0/0d/201x_Practice_Paper_A1_Answers.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/8/84/201x_Practice_Paper_A2_Questions.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/7/78/201x_Practice_Paper_A2_Resources.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resources
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/36/201x_Practice_Paper_A2_Answers.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2018 AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/f7/H004-01_Question_Paper_Jun18.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/36/H004_Mark_Scheme_June18.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2018 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/42/2018_Paper_1_Question_and_Answer.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions and mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/a/a9/2018_Paper_2_Question_and_Answer.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions and mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/b/b6/2018_Paper_2_Resources.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resources

==2019 AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/c/c0/2019_AS_Questions.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/a/a4/2019_AS_Answers.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2019 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/6/69/2019_DesEng_Paper_1_Questions.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/0/02/2019_DesEng_Paper_1_Answers.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/fc/Design_Engineering_2019_Paper_1.pdf Paper 1] model solution
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/b/b8/2019_DesEng_Paper_2_Questions.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/a/a4/2019_DesEng_Paper_2_Resources.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resources
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/7/73/2019_DesEng_Paper_2_Marks.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/9/9b/Design_Engineering_2019_Paper_2.pdf Paper 2] model solution

==2020 AS Paper==
*No AS paper was published in 2020 due to the Covid-19 pandemic.

==2020 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/e/e9/Paper_1.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/f2/H404_01_MS_Nov20.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/43/Paper_2.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/2/2d/Paper_2_Resource_booklet.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/11/H404_02_MS_Nov20.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2021 AS Paper==
*No AS paper was published in 2021 due to the Covid-19 pandemic.

==2021 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/ff/H404-01_QP_Oct21.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/1d/H404-01_MS_Oct21.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/d/df/H404-02_QP_Oct21.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/e/ef/H404-02_Resource_Booklet_Oct21.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/3c/H404-02_MS_Oct21.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2022 AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/4f/H004-01_QP_Jun22.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/41/H004-01_MS_Jun22.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2022 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/19/H404-01_QP_Jun22.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/5/54/H404-01_MS_Jun22.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/30/H404-02_QP_Jun22.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/6/62/H404-02_RB_Jun22.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/4b/H404-02_MS_Jun22.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2023 AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/e/ee/2023_AS_Paper.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/d/d1/2023_AS_Paper_Marks.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2023 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/5/51/Question_paper_June_2023_%28H40401%29.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/16/Mark_scheme_June_2023_%28H40401%29.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/a/a9/Question_paper_June_2023_%28H40402%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/3b/Resource_booklet_June_2023_%28H40402%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/3e/Mark_scheme_June_2023_%28H40402%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2024 AS Paper==
*No AS paper was produced for Summer 2024

==2024 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/9/95/Question_paper_June_2024_%28H404_01%29.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/9/90/Mark_scheme_June_2024_%28H404_01%29.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/e/e9/Question_paper_June_2024_%28H404_02%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/8/82/Resource_booklet_June_2024_%28H404_02%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/f0/Mark_scheme_June_2024_%28H404_02%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2025 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/40/Question_paper_June_2025_%28H40401%29.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/5/54/Mark_scheme_June_2025_%28H40401%29.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/0/01/Question_paper_June_2025_%28H40402%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/a/a2/Resource_booklet_June_2025_%28H40402%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/2/21/Mark_scheme_June_2025_%28H40402%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/0/0c/Examiners_report_June_2025_%28H40402%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] examiner report

==Other items==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/f3/Feb_2020_Y12_PUPG.pdf Feb 2020 PUPG] exam paper

[[Design_Engineering|Design Engineering homepage]]

File:Examiners report June 2025 (H40402).pdf

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File:Resource booklet June 2025 (H40402).pdf

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File:Mark scheme June 2025 (H40402).pdf

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Manufacturing processes and techniques

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Stsb11: /* addition processes such as soldering, brazing, welding, adhesives, fasteners */

==Materials and processes used to make iterative models==

==7.1a Understand that 3D iterative models can be made from a range of materials and components to create block models and working prototypes to communicate and test ideas, moving parts and structural integrity==

==7.1b Demonstrate an understanding of simple processes that can be used to model ideas using hand tools and digital tools such as rapid prototyping, or digital simulation packages.==
[[File:solidworks_example.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Solidworks is an example of 3D software used to model working prototypes. This software can be used to digitally simulate models. Other software packages that can be used are Circuit Wizard.
[[File:circuit_wizard_example.gif|500px|thumb|center]]
#Materials and processes used to make final prototypes

==7.2a Understand how to select and safely use of common workshop tools, equipment and machinery to manipulate materials by methods of:==
===wasting/subtraction processes such as cutting, drilling, turning, milling===
#Cutting is the separation of a physical object, into two or more portions, through the application of an acutely directed force.
#Chip forming - sawing, drilling, milling, turning etc.
#Shearing - punching, stamping, scissoring.
#Abrading - grinding, lapping, polishing; water-jet.
#Heat - flame cutting, plasma cutting, laser cutting.
#Electrochemical - etching, electrical discharge machining (EDM).
#Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool, often multi-point. The bit is pressed against the work-piece and rotated at rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute.
[[File:drilling_process.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Turning is a form of machining, a material removal process, which is used to create rotational parts by cutting away unwanted material. The turning process requires a turning machine or lathe, workpiece, fixture, and cutting tool.
<center><youtube>8EsAxOnzEms</youtube></center>
#Milling is the most common form of machining, a material removal process, which can create a variety of features on a part by cutting away the unwanted material. The milling process requires a milling machine, workpiece, fixture, and cutter.
<center><youtube>eJR-G-3Kvsk</youtube></center>
===addition processes such as soldering, brazing, welding, adhesives, fasteners===
#Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and then flowing a filler metal into the joint—the filler metal having a relatively low melting point. Soldering is used to form a permanent connection between electronic components.
[[File:soldering.jpeg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Brazing is a metal-joining process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point than the adjoining metal.
[[File:brazing.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#There are many different types of welding.
[[File:welding_processes.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Click on the links below to read more about the main types of welding:
##[http://www.technologystudent.com/equip_flsh/acet1.html Gas welding]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_welding Arc welding]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_metal_arc_welding MIG welding]. Tip: TIG welding is a similar process, which is commonly used when welding aluminium.
#Adhesives may be used interchangeably with glue, cement, mucilage, or paste, and is any substance applied to one surface, or both surfaces, of two separate items that binds them together and resists their separation.
##To read up on different types of glues/adhesives, click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/joints/stglu1.htm this] link to go to www.technologystudent.com to read more on this.
#A fastener is a hardware device that mechanically joins or affixes two or more objects together. In general, fasteners are used to create non-permanent joints; that is, joints that can be removed or dismantled without damaging the joining components.

[[File:fastners.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

===deforming and reforming processes such as bending, vacuum forming===
#There are many different ways to bend different types of materials. Line bending is a common way of bending plastics. Click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/joints/desk17.htm this] link to read more about line bending.
#If you want to bend pipes or tubes, click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/equip_flsh/pipe1.html this] link to read more about it.
#Vacuum forming is a simplified version of thermoforming, where a sheet of plastic is heated to a forming temperature, stretched onto a single-surface mold, and forced against the mould by a vacuum. This process can be used to form plastic into permanent objects such as turnpike signs and protective covers. Normally draft angles are present in the design of the mould (a recommended minimum of 3°) to ease removal of the formed plastic part from the mold.
[[File:vaccuum_forming.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
[[File:vaccuum_forming_machine.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
<center><youtube>BqV_jsxD0UA&t</youtube></center>

==7.2b Demonstrate an understanding of the role of computer-aided manufacture (CAM) and computer-aided engineering (CAE) to fabricate parts, such as:==
===additive manufacturing (3D printing) to fabricate a usable part===
#3D printing refers to processes in which material is joined or solidified under computer control to create a three-dimensional object, with material being added together (such as liquid molecules or powder grains being fused together). 3D printing is used in both rapid prototyping and additive manufacturing (AM). Objects can be of almost any shape or geometry and typically are produced using digital model data from a 3D model or another electronic data source such as an Additive Manufacturing File (AMF) file (usually in sequential layers). Stereolithography (STL) is one of the most common file types that is used for 3D printing. Thus, unlike material removed from a stock in the conventional machining process, 3D printing or AM builds a three-dimensional object from computer-aided design (CAD) model or AMF file, usually by successively adding material layer by layer.
<center><youtube>Gwro2HzxMgw&t</youtube></center>
===subtractive CNC manufacturing such as laser/plasma cutting, milling, turning and routing===
#To read more about the world of CNC machining, click on the links below.
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_cutting Laser cutting]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_cutting Plasma cutting]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milling_(machining) CNC milling]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turning CNC turning]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNC_router CNC router]

==7.2c Demonstrate an understanding of measuring instruments and techniques used to ensure that products are manufactured accurately or within tolerances as appropriate.==
#There are many instruments that can be used to measure sizes of products. The 2 most common ones you will use are the:
##Steel rule
[[File:steel_rule.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

##Vernier Caliper
[[File:vernier.png|500px|thumb|center]]
#To read more about the vernier caliper, click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/equip1/vernier3.htm this] link to go to www.technologystudent.com to read how to use the measuring instrument.
#Other tools are available to measure products, such as a 'dial test indicator' or a 'micrometer'.

==7.2d Understand how the available forms, costs and working properties of materials contribute to the decisions about suitability of materials when developing and manufacturing their own products.==
#In every decision about manufacturing a product, the cost of the overall product is very important to a manufacturer as this will determine profits. When deciding on the materials to be used in a product, there are many decisions that will need to be made. First you would need to find as many suitable materials as possible, considering as many possibilities as you can, such as, corrosion resistance or longevity.
#Once you have selected suitable materials for your product, you will then need to consider cost, practicalities, such as manufacturing processes. This will need to be completed before deciding on the end material.
#Materials and processes used to make commercial products

==7.3a Demonstrate an understanding of the industrial processes and machinery used for manufacturing component parts in various materials, including:==
===polymer moulding methods, such as injection moulding, blow moulding, compression moulding and thermoforming===
<center><youtube>b1U9W4iNDiQ</youtube></center>
#Injection moulding is a manufacturing process for producing parts by injecting molten material into a mould. Injection moulding can be performed with a host of materials mainly including metals, (for which the process is called die-casting), glasses, elastomers, confections, and most commonly thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers. Material for the part is fed into a heated barrel, mixed (Using a helical shaped screw), and injected (Forced) into a mould cavity, where it cools and hardens to the configuration of the cavity. After a product is designed, usually by an industrial designer or an engineer, moulds are made by a mould-maker (or toolmaker) from metal, usually either steel or aluminium, and precision-machined to form the features of the desired part. Injection moulding is widely used for manufacturing a variety of parts, from the smallest components to entire body panels of cars. Advances in 3D printing technology, using photopolymers which do not melt during the injection moulding of some lower temperature thermoplastics, can be used for some simple injection moulds.
[[File:injection_moulding.png|500px|thumb|center]]

#Blow molding is a manufacturing process by which hollow plastic parts are formed: It is also used for forming glass bottles. In general, there are three main types of blow molding: extrusion blow molding, injection blow molding, and injection stretch blow molding. The blow molding process begins with melting down the plastic and forming it into a parison or in the case of injection and injection stretch blow moulding (ISB) a preform. The parison is a tube-like piece of plastic with a hole in one end through which compressed air can pass.

[[File:blow_molding.png|500px|thumb|center]]
<center><youtube>NE4c1gwzPb4</youtube></center>
#Extrusion moulding is a manufacturing process used to make pipes, hoses, drinking straws, curtain tracks, rods. Plastic granules melt into a liquid which is forced through a die, forming a long 'tube like' shape. The shape of the die determines the shape of the tube. The extrusion is then cooled and forms a solid shape. The tube may be printed upon, and cut at equal intervals. The pieces may be rolled for storage or packed together. Shapes that can result from extrusion include T-sections, U-sections, square sections, I-sections, L-sections and circular sections. Extrusion is similar to injection moulding except that a long continuous shape is produced. Learn more [https://www.technologystudent.com/equip1/plasextru1.html here].

#Compression Molding is a method of molding in which the moulding material, generally preheated, is first placed in an open, heated mould cavity. The mold is closed with a top force or plug member, pressure is applied to force the material into contact with all mold areas, while heat and pressure are maintained until the molding material has cured. The process employs thermosetting resins in a partially cured stage, either in the form of granules, putty-like masses, or preforms.

[[File:compression_molding.png|500px|thumb|center]]

#Thermoforming is a manufacturing process where a plastic sheet is heated to a pliable forming temperature, formed to a specific shape in a mold, and trimmed to create a usable product. The sheet, or "film" when referring to thinner gauges and certain material types, is heated in an oven to a high-enough temperature that permits it to be stretched into or onto a mold and cooled to a finished shape. Its simplified version is vacuum forming.

[[File:Thermoforming.gif|500px|thumb|center]]

===Metal casting - Sand Casting===
#Sand casting, also known as sand molded casting, is a metal casting process characterized by using sand as the mold material. The term "sand casting" can also refer to an object produced via the sand casting process. Sand castings are produced in specialized factories called foundries. Over 70% of all metal castings are produced via sand casting process.

[[File:sand_casting.png|500px|thumb|center]]

===Metal casting - Die Casting===
#Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterised by forcing molten metal under high pressure into a mould cavity. The mould cavity is created using two hardened tool steel dies which have been machined into shape and work similarly to an injection mould during the process. Most die castings are made from non-ferrous metals, specifically zinc, copper, aluminium, magnesium, lead, pewter and tin-based alloys. Depending on the type of metal being cast, a hot- or cold-chamber machine is used. The steps are...
##Moulds machined from HSS using a CNC milling machine.
##Molten aluminium alloy added to die casting machine.
##Molten aluminium forced into die by piston.
##Water cooling of casting.
##Split dies open and ejector pins eject the cast part.
##Finished part is 'fettled' (the rough edges are sanded/tidied) to remove flashing where the two halves of the mould came together.
##If required, the part can then be painted (e.g. by spraying or a dip-coating process)
[[File:die_casting.png|500px|thumb|center]]

===Sheet metal forming methods using equipment such as punches, rollers, shears and stamping machines===
#Punching is a forming process that uses a punch press to force a tool, called a punch, through the workpiece to create a hole via shearing. Punching is applicable to a wide variety of materials that come in sheet form, including sheet metal, paper, vulcanized fibre and some forms of plastic sheet. The punch often passes through the work into a die. A scrap slug from the hole is deposited into the die in the process. Depending on the material being punched this slug may be recycled and reused or discarded. Tip: There's also 'blanking'. The difference is that with blanking, you keep the part that is pushed out (e.g. if you're making coins). With 'punching', you're getting rid of the part that's removed (e.g. when you make holes).

[[File:punching.jpeg|500px|thumb|center]]

#Sheet metal rolling.
<center><youtube>1EGnHsYoKH0</youtube></center>

#Shearing, also known as die cutting, is a process which cuts stock without the formation of chips or the use of burning or melting. Strictly speaking, if the cutting blades are straight the process is called shearing; if the cutting blades are curved then they are shearing-type operations. The most commonly sheared materials are in the form of sheet metal or plates, however rods can also be sheared.

[[File:shear.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

#Stamping (also known as pressing) is the process of placing flat sheet metal in either blank or coil form into a stamping press where a tool and die surface forms the metal into a net shape. Stamping includes a variety of sheet-metal forming manufacturing processes, such as punching using a machine press or stamping press, blanking, embossing, bending, flanging, and coining.

[[File:stamping.gif|500px|thumb|center]]

==7.3b Demonstrate an understanding of the industrial methods used for assembling electronic products, such as:==
===surface mount technology (SMT)===
#PCB assembly using solder stencils, pick-and-place machines and reflow soldering ovens.
#Watch the video below, this is a homemade machine, but it shows clearly the process of picking and placing surface mount (SMT) compinents to a PCB.

<center><youtube>CRSLbo_8nTQ</youtube></center>

#Below is a video explaining what reflow soldering is. Below that video is one explaining how the relow soldering oven work. It is selling a product, if you skip to 1:20, you will see how it works.
<center><youtube>eOUf59iut3s</youtube></center>
<center><youtube>Zw53kxy7yL0</youtube></center>

===CNC manufacturing such as laser/plasma cutting, milling, turning and routing===
#Watch the videos below to see the above CNC machines in action.
#CNC plasma cutting (the same as laser cutting)

<center><youtube>sKLdrHo2RWs</youtube></center>

#CNC milling machine.

'''Please note:''' the milling turns to CNC turning at 7:35 in the video below.

<center><youtube>7iKmTnZvA34</youtube></center>

#CNC turning machine.

<center><youtube>MwgobIVj4fU</youtube></center>

#CNC routing machine.

<center><youtube>txCMvRF4Bm8</youtube></center>

==7.3c Demonstrate an understanding of the benefits and flexibility of using computer-controlled machinery.==
===Automated material handling systems===
#Automated Materials Handling. Automated materials handling (AMH) refers to any automation that reduces or eliminates the need for humans to check-in, check-out, sort material, or to move totes and bins containing library material.
#Robot arms to stack, assemble, join and paint parts.
##Click [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v%3DgUWCljX7oa0 here] to watch a video of a robot being used to paint a car.
##Click [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v%3DLVtBjFUfFLE here] to watch a video of a robotic assembly line.

==7.3d Understand the necessity for manufacturers to optimise the use of materials and production processes.==
===Economical cutting and costing===

===Working to a budget through efficient manufacture===

==7.4a The methods used for manufacturing at different scales of production, including:==
===one-off, bespoke production===
#Job production, sometimes called jobbing or *one-off* production, involves producing custom work, such as a one-off product for a specific customer or a small batch of work in quantities usually less than those of mass-market products.

===Batch production===
#Batch production is a technique used in manufacturing, in which the object in question is created stage by stage over a series of workstations, and different batches of products are made.

===Mass production===
#Mass production is the manufacture of large quantities of standardized products, frequently utilizing assembly line technology. Mass production refers to the process of creating large numbers of similar products efficiently.

===Cell Manufacturing===
#Cell production is a manufacturing method where work is organised into small teams (“cells”). Each cell responsible for completing a whole unit of work or a significant part of it.
#The workers in the cell carry out a range of tasks and are often multi-skilled. Workers are multi-skilled and can rotate tasks within the cell.
#Examples: Electronics assembly, Automotive sub-assembly, power tool manufacture.
#Advantages:
##Improved communication within the cell as team members work closely together.
##Greater worker motivation due to team ownership, responsibility, and variety of tasks.
##Higher flexibility, as cells can be quickly reconfigured for different products.
##Better quality as teams monitor their own work and spot defects earlier.
#Disadvantages:
##Initial set-up cost can be high (reorganising layout, training staff).
##Not suitable for very high-volume mass production, where continuous flow lines are more efficient.
##If one cell stops, it can affect the whole production flow.
##Requires multi-skilled workers, which may require training and higher wages.

===lean manufacturing and just-in-time (JIT) methods===
#Lean manufacturing or lean production, often simply "lean", is a systematic method for waste minimization ("Muda") within a manufacturing system without sacrificing productivity. Lean also takes into account waste created through overburden ("Muri") and waste created through unevenness in work loads ("Mura"). Working from the perspective of the client who consumes a product or service, "value" is any action or process that a customer would be willing to pay for.
#Just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing, also known as just in time production is a methodology aimed at reducing flow times within production system as well as response times from suppliers and to customers. Its origin and development was in Japan, largely in the 1960s and 1970s and particularly at Toyota.
##Involves holding minimal stock within a factory, having production planned so that raw material arrives ‘just in time’ to be put onto the shop floor.
##Avoids carrying large amounts of stock or finished product that needs looking after.
##Once made, products are shipped as quickly as possible.
##This relies on meticulous organisation - any delays to delivery will hit productivity quickly and so are avoided.

===Fully automated manufacture===
#Lights out (manufacturing) Lights out or lights-out manufacturing is a manufacturing methodology (or philosophy), rather than a specific process. Factories that run lights out are fully automated and require no human presence on-site.
#Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lights_out_(manufacturing) here] to read more about 'lights out' manufacturing.

==7.4b Understanding how ICT and digital technologies are changing modern manufacturing.==
===Customised manufacture systems===
#In the custom manufacturing system, each item is produced by a single craftsperson, who works solely by hand or with the help of a machine. ... As a result, custom-manufactured products are of the highest quality but are also the most expensive products in the market.

===Rapid prototyping===
#Rapid prototyping is a group of techniques used to quickly fabricate a scale model of a physical part or assembly using three-dimensional computer aided design (CAD) data. Construction of the part or assembly is usually done using 3D printing or "additive layer manufacturing" technology.

===Additive and digital manufacture methods===
#Additive Manufacturing refers to a process by which digital 3D design data is used to build up a component in layers by depositing material. The term "3D printing" is increasingly used as a synonym for Additive Manufacturing. However, the latter is more accurate in that it describes a professional production technique which is clearly distinguished from conventional methods of material removal. Instead of milling a workpiece from solid block, for example, Additive Manufacturing builds up components layer by layer using materials which are available in fine powder form. A range of different metals, plastics and composite materials may be used.

===Stock control, monitoring logistics in industry===
#Stock control, monitoring logistics is the fact or process of ensuring that appropriate amounts of stock are maintained by a business, so as to be able to meet customer demand without delay while keeping the costs associated with holding stock to a minimum.

==7.5a Understanding the process that needs to be undertaken to ensure products meet legal requirements and are high quality.==
#Total Quality management (TQM) is the continual process of detecting and reducing or eliminating errors in manufacturing, streamlining supply chain management, improving quality and customer experience.
#In a TQM business model, all areas of a business and its suppliers use agreed specifications and quality control methods, and quality is the responsibility of everyone. This happens where a company has a desire to gain customer satisfaction, aiming to guarantee the manufacture of a quality product, every time.
#TQM seeks to improve both quality of product and efficiency in manufacture.
#This is implemented through three areas:

===Management===
#Reviewing and monitoring every stage of the process.
#ISO9000 certification process to appreciate quality in house and from suppliers.
#BS 7850 as a standard for effective management of human resources and materials.
#Poke-Yokes as a simple checking strategy to eliminate errors arising for relative labour-intensive tasks.
#Implementation of Kaizen as a method of continuous improvement as workers are best placed to suggest improvements to processes and feel empowered and wanted within their jobs.
#Employees encouraged to take pride in their work and are trained to perform their work optimally.

===Quality Assurance===
#Check for quality raw materials / components from suppliers.
#Checking every stage of the manufacturing process.
#Induction / ongoing training for staff to ensure they understand how to achieve quality.
#Checking against the specification to ensure customer requirements.

===Quality Control===
#Random Sampling of parts and components as they are being manufactured.
#Every employee is responsible for their quality standards.
#Tolerances in place to ensure upper and lower dimensional allowances.

==QA Vs QC==
#During the manufacturing process, QC and QA are vital to ensure a high-quality end product which is safe, and meets client expectation. In the areas such as aeronautical, automotive and medical industries, getting this right can have life or death implications.
#QC is like checking from time to time that your goldfish is still alive. With QA, you would also aim to make sure that the filter and pump work correctly, the water is the right temperature and is changed on schedule, and that everyone in the household knows when and how much to feed it.
#Quality Control is where a product is inspected or tested to ensure that it meets the requirements for the specific product. For instance, a car part may need to be made from aluminium, weight 54.5g and measure 3mm x 6mm. If out of 50 parts inspected, 49 match these requirements, but one weighs 55g and is 3mm x 6.5mm, that part would fail its quality control check. Quality Control does not ensure quality – it informs where it is missing.
#Quality Assurance seeks to look more closely at the process of making the product, seeks to find common areas where quality has the potential to slip and looks to address these so that manufactured parts fail less often. This can happen right through the design, development and manufacture stages.
#[http://www.iso9001consultant.com.au/QA.html Read more here]

==European and British standards==
#It comprises a set of questions and answers that summarizes the role of standards in the European Single Market. The information in this document has been prepared by BSI (British Standards Institution), which is appointed by the UK Government (HMG) to act as the UK National Standards Body (NSB).

[[Design_Engineering|Design Engineering homepage]]

Manufacturing processes and techniques

2026-01-25T17:06:16Z

Stsb11: /* Sheet metal forming methods using equipment such as punches, rollers, shears and stamping machines */

==Materials and processes used to make iterative models==

==7.1a Understand that 3D iterative models can be made from a range of materials and components to create block models and working prototypes to communicate and test ideas, moving parts and structural integrity==

==7.1b Demonstrate an understanding of simple processes that can be used to model ideas using hand tools and digital tools such as rapid prototyping, or digital simulation packages.==
[[File:solidworks_example.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Solidworks is an example of 3D software used to model working prototypes. This software can be used to digitally simulate models. Other software packages that can be used are Circuit Wizard.
[[File:circuit_wizard_example.gif|500px|thumb|center]]
#Materials and processes used to make final prototypes

==7.2a Understand how to select and safely use of common workshop tools, equipment and machinery to manipulate materials by methods of:==
===wasting/subtraction processes such as cutting, drilling, turning, milling===
#Cutting is the separation of a physical object, into two or more portions, through the application of an acutely directed force.
#Chip forming - sawing, drilling, milling, turning etc.
#Shearing - punching, stamping, scissoring.
#Abrading - grinding, lapping, polishing; water-jet.
#Heat - flame cutting, plasma cutting, laser cutting.
#Electrochemical - etching, electrical discharge machining (EDM).
#Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool, often multi-point. The bit is pressed against the work-piece and rotated at rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute.
[[File:drilling_process.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Turning is a form of machining, a material removal process, which is used to create rotational parts by cutting away unwanted material. The turning process requires a turning machine or lathe, workpiece, fixture, and cutting tool.
<center><youtube>8EsAxOnzEms</youtube></center>
#Milling is the most common form of machining, a material removal process, which can create a variety of features on a part by cutting away the unwanted material. The milling process requires a milling machine, workpiece, fixture, and cutter.
<center><youtube>eJR-G-3Kvsk</youtube></center>
===addition processes such as soldering, brazing, welding, adhesives, fasteners===
#Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and then flowing a filler metal into the joint—the filler metal having a relatively low melting point. Soldering is used to form a permanent connection between electronic components.
[[File:soldering.jpeg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Brazing is a metal-joining process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point than the adjoining metal.
[[File:brazing.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#There are many different types of welding.
[[File:welding_processes.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Click on the links below to read more about the main types of welding:
##[http://www.technologystudent.com/equip_flsh/acet1.html Gas welding]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_welding Arc welding]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_metal_arc_welding MIG welding]
#Adhesives may be used interchangeably with glue, cement, mucilage, or paste, and is any substance applied to one surface, or both surfaces, of two separate items that binds them together and resists their separation.
##To read up on different types of glues/adhesives, click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/joints/stglu1.htm this] link to go to www.technologystudent.com to read more on this.
#A fastener is a hardware device that mechanically joins or affixes two or more objects together. In general, fasteners are used to create non-permanent joints; that is, joints that can be removed or dismantled without damaging the joining components.

[[File:fastners.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

===deforming and reforming processes such as bending, vacuum forming===
#There are many different ways to bend different types of materials. Line bending is a common way of bending plastics. Click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/joints/desk17.htm this] link to read more about line bending.
#If you want to bend pipes or tubes, click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/equip_flsh/pipe1.html this] link to read more about it.
#Vacuum forming is a simplified version of thermoforming, where a sheet of plastic is heated to a forming temperature, stretched onto a single-surface mold, and forced against the mould by a vacuum. This process can be used to form plastic into permanent objects such as turnpike signs and protective covers. Normally draft angles are present in the design of the mould (a recommended minimum of 3°) to ease removal of the formed plastic part from the mold.
[[File:vaccuum_forming.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
[[File:vaccuum_forming_machine.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
<center><youtube>BqV_jsxD0UA&t</youtube></center>

==7.2b Demonstrate an understanding of the role of computer-aided manufacture (CAM) and computer-aided engineering (CAE) to fabricate parts, such as:==
===additive manufacturing (3D printing) to fabricate a usable part===
#3D printing refers to processes in which material is joined or solidified under computer control to create a three-dimensional object, with material being added together (such as liquid molecules or powder grains being fused together). 3D printing is used in both rapid prototyping and additive manufacturing (AM). Objects can be of almost any shape or geometry and typically are produced using digital model data from a 3D model or another electronic data source such as an Additive Manufacturing File (AMF) file (usually in sequential layers). Stereolithography (STL) is one of the most common file types that is used for 3D printing. Thus, unlike material removed from a stock in the conventional machining process, 3D printing or AM builds a three-dimensional object from computer-aided design (CAD) model or AMF file, usually by successively adding material layer by layer.
<center><youtube>Gwro2HzxMgw&t</youtube></center>
===subtractive CNC manufacturing such as laser/plasma cutting, milling, turning and routing===
#To read more about the world of CNC machining, click on the links below.
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_cutting Laser cutting]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_cutting Plasma cutting]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milling_(machining) CNC milling]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turning CNC turning]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNC_router CNC router]

==7.2c Demonstrate an understanding of measuring instruments and techniques used to ensure that products are manufactured accurately or within tolerances as appropriate.==
#There are many instruments that can be used to measure sizes of products. The 2 most common ones you will use are the:
##Steel rule
[[File:steel_rule.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

##Vernier Caliper
[[File:vernier.png|500px|thumb|center]]
#To read more about the vernier caliper, click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/equip1/vernier3.htm this] link to go to www.technologystudent.com to read how to use the measuring instrument.
#Other tools are available to measure products, such as a 'dial test indicator' or a 'micrometer'.

==7.2d Understand how the available forms, costs and working properties of materials contribute to the decisions about suitability of materials when developing and manufacturing their own products.==
#In every decision about manufacturing a product, the cost of the overall product is very important to a manufacturer as this will determine profits. When deciding on the materials to be used in a product, there are many decisions that will need to be made. First you would need to find as many suitable materials as possible, considering as many possibilities as you can, such as, corrosion resistance or longevity.
#Once you have selected suitable materials for your product, you will then need to consider cost, practicalities, such as manufacturing processes. This will need to be completed before deciding on the end material.
#Materials and processes used to make commercial products

==7.3a Demonstrate an understanding of the industrial processes and machinery used for manufacturing component parts in various materials, including:==
===polymer moulding methods, such as injection moulding, blow moulding, compression moulding and thermoforming===
<center><youtube>b1U9W4iNDiQ</youtube></center>
#Injection moulding is a manufacturing process for producing parts by injecting molten material into a mould. Injection moulding can be performed with a host of materials mainly including metals, (for which the process is called die-casting), glasses, elastomers, confections, and most commonly thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers. Material for the part is fed into a heated barrel, mixed (Using a helical shaped screw), and injected (Forced) into a mould cavity, where it cools and hardens to the configuration of the cavity. After a product is designed, usually by an industrial designer or an engineer, moulds are made by a mould-maker (or toolmaker) from metal, usually either steel or aluminium, and precision-machined to form the features of the desired part. Injection moulding is widely used for manufacturing a variety of parts, from the smallest components to entire body panels of cars. Advances in 3D printing technology, using photopolymers which do not melt during the injection moulding of some lower temperature thermoplastics, can be used for some simple injection moulds.
[[File:injection_moulding.png|500px|thumb|center]]

#Blow molding is a manufacturing process by which hollow plastic parts are formed: It is also used for forming glass bottles. In general, there are three main types of blow molding: extrusion blow molding, injection blow molding, and injection stretch blow molding. The blow molding process begins with melting down the plastic and forming it into a parison or in the case of injection and injection stretch blow moulding (ISB) a preform. The parison is a tube-like piece of plastic with a hole in one end through which compressed air can pass.

[[File:blow_molding.png|500px|thumb|center]]
<center><youtube>NE4c1gwzPb4</youtube></center>
#Extrusion moulding is a manufacturing process used to make pipes, hoses, drinking straws, curtain tracks, rods. Plastic granules melt into a liquid which is forced through a die, forming a long 'tube like' shape. The shape of the die determines the shape of the tube. The extrusion is then cooled and forms a solid shape. The tube may be printed upon, and cut at equal intervals. The pieces may be rolled for storage or packed together. Shapes that can result from extrusion include T-sections, U-sections, square sections, I-sections, L-sections and circular sections. Extrusion is similar to injection moulding except that a long continuous shape is produced. Learn more [https://www.technologystudent.com/equip1/plasextru1.html here].

#Compression Molding is a method of molding in which the moulding material, generally preheated, is first placed in an open, heated mould cavity. The mold is closed with a top force or plug member, pressure is applied to force the material into contact with all mold areas, while heat and pressure are maintained until the molding material has cured. The process employs thermosetting resins in a partially cured stage, either in the form of granules, putty-like masses, or preforms.

[[File:compression_molding.png|500px|thumb|center]]

#Thermoforming is a manufacturing process where a plastic sheet is heated to a pliable forming temperature, formed to a specific shape in a mold, and trimmed to create a usable product. The sheet, or "film" when referring to thinner gauges and certain material types, is heated in an oven to a high-enough temperature that permits it to be stretched into or onto a mold and cooled to a finished shape. Its simplified version is vacuum forming.

[[File:Thermoforming.gif|500px|thumb|center]]

===Metal casting - Sand Casting===
#Sand casting, also known as sand molded casting, is a metal casting process characterized by using sand as the mold material. The term "sand casting" can also refer to an object produced via the sand casting process. Sand castings are produced in specialized factories called foundries. Over 70% of all metal castings are produced via sand casting process.

[[File:sand_casting.png|500px|thumb|center]]

===Metal casting - Die Casting===
#Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterised by forcing molten metal under high pressure into a mould cavity. The mould cavity is created using two hardened tool steel dies which have been machined into shape and work similarly to an injection mould during the process. Most die castings are made from non-ferrous metals, specifically zinc, copper, aluminium, magnesium, lead, pewter and tin-based alloys. Depending on the type of metal being cast, a hot- or cold-chamber machine is used. The steps are...
##Moulds machined from HSS using a CNC milling machine.
##Molten aluminium alloy added to die casting machine.
##Molten aluminium forced into die by piston.
##Water cooling of casting.
##Split dies open and ejector pins eject the cast part.
##Finished part is 'fettled' (the rough edges are sanded/tidied) to remove flashing where the two halves of the mould came together.
##If required, the part can then be painted (e.g. by spraying or a dip-coating process)
[[File:die_casting.png|500px|thumb|center]]

===Sheet metal forming methods using equipment such as punches, rollers, shears and stamping machines===
#Punching is a forming process that uses a punch press to force a tool, called a punch, through the workpiece to create a hole via shearing. Punching is applicable to a wide variety of materials that come in sheet form, including sheet metal, paper, vulcanized fibre and some forms of plastic sheet. The punch often passes through the work into a die. A scrap slug from the hole is deposited into the die in the process. Depending on the material being punched this slug may be recycled and reused or discarded. Tip: There's also 'blanking'. The difference is that with blanking, you keep the part that is pushed out (e.g. if you're making coins). With 'punching', you're getting rid of the part that's removed (e.g. when you make holes).

[[File:punching.jpeg|500px|thumb|center]]

#Sheet metal rolling.
<center><youtube>1EGnHsYoKH0</youtube></center>

#Shearing, also known as die cutting, is a process which cuts stock without the formation of chips or the use of burning or melting. Strictly speaking, if the cutting blades are straight the process is called shearing; if the cutting blades are curved then they are shearing-type operations. The most commonly sheared materials are in the form of sheet metal or plates, however rods can also be sheared.

[[File:shear.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

#Stamping (also known as pressing) is the process of placing flat sheet metal in either blank or coil form into a stamping press where a tool and die surface forms the metal into a net shape. Stamping includes a variety of sheet-metal forming manufacturing processes, such as punching using a machine press or stamping press, blanking, embossing, bending, flanging, and coining.

[[File:stamping.gif|500px|thumb|center]]

==7.3b Demonstrate an understanding of the industrial methods used for assembling electronic products, such as:==
===surface mount technology (SMT)===
#PCB assembly using solder stencils, pick-and-place machines and reflow soldering ovens.
#Watch the video below, this is a homemade machine, but it shows clearly the process of picking and placing surface mount (SMT) compinents to a PCB.

<center><youtube>CRSLbo_8nTQ</youtube></center>

#Below is a video explaining what reflow soldering is. Below that video is one explaining how the relow soldering oven work. It is selling a product, if you skip to 1:20, you will see how it works.
<center><youtube>eOUf59iut3s</youtube></center>
<center><youtube>Zw53kxy7yL0</youtube></center>

===CNC manufacturing such as laser/plasma cutting, milling, turning and routing===
#Watch the videos below to see the above CNC machines in action.
#CNC plasma cutting (the same as laser cutting)

<center><youtube>sKLdrHo2RWs</youtube></center>

#CNC milling machine.

'''Please note:''' the milling turns to CNC turning at 7:35 in the video below.

<center><youtube>7iKmTnZvA34</youtube></center>

#CNC turning machine.

<center><youtube>MwgobIVj4fU</youtube></center>

#CNC routing machine.

<center><youtube>txCMvRF4Bm8</youtube></center>

==7.3c Demonstrate an understanding of the benefits and flexibility of using computer-controlled machinery.==
===Automated material handling systems===
#Automated Materials Handling. Automated materials handling (AMH) refers to any automation that reduces or eliminates the need for humans to check-in, check-out, sort material, or to move totes and bins containing library material.
#Robot arms to stack, assemble, join and paint parts.
##Click [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v%3DgUWCljX7oa0 here] to watch a video of a robot being used to paint a car.
##Click [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v%3DLVtBjFUfFLE here] to watch a video of a robotic assembly line.

==7.3d Understand the necessity for manufacturers to optimise the use of materials and production processes.==
===Economical cutting and costing===

===Working to a budget through efficient manufacture===

==7.4a The methods used for manufacturing at different scales of production, including:==
===one-off, bespoke production===
#Job production, sometimes called jobbing or *one-off* production, involves producing custom work, such as a one-off product for a specific customer or a small batch of work in quantities usually less than those of mass-market products.

===Batch production===
#Batch production is a technique used in manufacturing, in which the object in question is created stage by stage over a series of workstations, and different batches of products are made.

===Mass production===
#Mass production is the manufacture of large quantities of standardized products, frequently utilizing assembly line technology. Mass production refers to the process of creating large numbers of similar products efficiently.

===Cell Manufacturing===
#Cell production is a manufacturing method where work is organised into small teams (“cells”). Each cell responsible for completing a whole unit of work or a significant part of it.
#The workers in the cell carry out a range of tasks and are often multi-skilled. Workers are multi-skilled and can rotate tasks within the cell.
#Examples: Electronics assembly, Automotive sub-assembly, power tool manufacture.
#Advantages:
##Improved communication within the cell as team members work closely together.
##Greater worker motivation due to team ownership, responsibility, and variety of tasks.
##Higher flexibility, as cells can be quickly reconfigured for different products.
##Better quality as teams monitor their own work and spot defects earlier.
#Disadvantages:
##Initial set-up cost can be high (reorganising layout, training staff).
##Not suitable for very high-volume mass production, where continuous flow lines are more efficient.
##If one cell stops, it can affect the whole production flow.
##Requires multi-skilled workers, which may require training and higher wages.

===lean manufacturing and just-in-time (JIT) methods===
#Lean manufacturing or lean production, often simply "lean", is a systematic method for waste minimization ("Muda") within a manufacturing system without sacrificing productivity. Lean also takes into account waste created through overburden ("Muri") and waste created through unevenness in work loads ("Mura"). Working from the perspective of the client who consumes a product or service, "value" is any action or process that a customer would be willing to pay for.
#Just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing, also known as just in time production is a methodology aimed at reducing flow times within production system as well as response times from suppliers and to customers. Its origin and development was in Japan, largely in the 1960s and 1970s and particularly at Toyota.
##Involves holding minimal stock within a factory, having production planned so that raw material arrives ‘just in time’ to be put onto the shop floor.
##Avoids carrying large amounts of stock or finished product that needs looking after.
##Once made, products are shipped as quickly as possible.
##This relies on meticulous organisation - any delays to delivery will hit productivity quickly and so are avoided.

===Fully automated manufacture===
#Lights out (manufacturing) Lights out or lights-out manufacturing is a manufacturing methodology (or philosophy), rather than a specific process. Factories that run lights out are fully automated and require no human presence on-site.
#Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lights_out_(manufacturing) here] to read more about 'lights out' manufacturing.

==7.4b Understanding how ICT and digital technologies are changing modern manufacturing.==
===Customised manufacture systems===
#In the custom manufacturing system, each item is produced by a single craftsperson, who works solely by hand or with the help of a machine. ... As a result, custom-manufactured products are of the highest quality but are also the most expensive products in the market.

===Rapid prototyping===
#Rapid prototyping is a group of techniques used to quickly fabricate a scale model of a physical part or assembly using three-dimensional computer aided design (CAD) data. Construction of the part or assembly is usually done using 3D printing or "additive layer manufacturing" technology.

===Additive and digital manufacture methods===
#Additive Manufacturing refers to a process by which digital 3D design data is used to build up a component in layers by depositing material. The term "3D printing" is increasingly used as a synonym for Additive Manufacturing. However, the latter is more accurate in that it describes a professional production technique which is clearly distinguished from conventional methods of material removal. Instead of milling a workpiece from solid block, for example, Additive Manufacturing builds up components layer by layer using materials which are available in fine powder form. A range of different metals, plastics and composite materials may be used.

===Stock control, monitoring logistics in industry===
#Stock control, monitoring logistics is the fact or process of ensuring that appropriate amounts of stock are maintained by a business, so as to be able to meet customer demand without delay while keeping the costs associated with holding stock to a minimum.

==7.5a Understanding the process that needs to be undertaken to ensure products meet legal requirements and are high quality.==
#Total Quality management (TQM) is the continual process of detecting and reducing or eliminating errors in manufacturing, streamlining supply chain management, improving quality and customer experience.
#In a TQM business model, all areas of a business and its suppliers use agreed specifications and quality control methods, and quality is the responsibility of everyone. This happens where a company has a desire to gain customer satisfaction, aiming to guarantee the manufacture of a quality product, every time.
#TQM seeks to improve both quality of product and efficiency in manufacture.
#This is implemented through three areas:

===Management===
#Reviewing and monitoring every stage of the process.
#ISO9000 certification process to appreciate quality in house and from suppliers.
#BS 7850 as a standard for effective management of human resources and materials.
#Poke-Yokes as a simple checking strategy to eliminate errors arising for relative labour-intensive tasks.
#Implementation of Kaizen as a method of continuous improvement as workers are best placed to suggest improvements to processes and feel empowered and wanted within their jobs.
#Employees encouraged to take pride in their work and are trained to perform their work optimally.

===Quality Assurance===
#Check for quality raw materials / components from suppliers.
#Checking every stage of the manufacturing process.
#Induction / ongoing training for staff to ensure they understand how to achieve quality.
#Checking against the specification to ensure customer requirements.

===Quality Control===
#Random Sampling of parts and components as they are being manufactured.
#Every employee is responsible for their quality standards.
#Tolerances in place to ensure upper and lower dimensional allowances.

==QA Vs QC==
#During the manufacturing process, QC and QA are vital to ensure a high-quality end product which is safe, and meets client expectation. In the areas such as aeronautical, automotive and medical industries, getting this right can have life or death implications.
#QC is like checking from time to time that your goldfish is still alive. With QA, you would also aim to make sure that the filter and pump work correctly, the water is the right temperature and is changed on schedule, and that everyone in the household knows when and how much to feed it.
#Quality Control is where a product is inspected or tested to ensure that it meets the requirements for the specific product. For instance, a car part may need to be made from aluminium, weight 54.5g and measure 3mm x 6mm. If out of 50 parts inspected, 49 match these requirements, but one weighs 55g and is 3mm x 6.5mm, that part would fail its quality control check. Quality Control does not ensure quality – it informs where it is missing.
#Quality Assurance seeks to look more closely at the process of making the product, seeks to find common areas where quality has the potential to slip and looks to address these so that manufactured parts fail less often. This can happen right through the design, development and manufacture stages.
#[http://www.iso9001consultant.com.au/QA.html Read more here]

==European and British standards==
#It comprises a set of questions and answers that summarizes the role of standards in the European Single Market. The information in this document has been prepared by BSI (British Standards Institution), which is appointed by the UK Government (HMG) to act as the UK National Standards Body (NSB).

[[Design_Engineering|Design Engineering homepage]]

Model Past Paper solutions

2026-01-22T09:12:04Z

Stsb11:

==2016 Sample AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/b/b5/2018_AS_Question_and_Answer.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions and mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/c/c8/Design_Engineering_2016.pdf AS Paper] model solution

==2017 Sample papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/11/201x_Practice_Paper_B1_Questions.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/5/54/201x_Practice_Paper_B1_Answers.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme (pg. 21 onwards)
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/6/65/201x_Practice_Paper_B2_Questions.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/1d/201x_Practice_Paper_B2_Resources.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resources
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/34/201x_Practice_Paper_B2_Answers.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme (pg. 13 onwards)

==2018 Sample papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/2/29/201x_Practice_Paper_A1_Questions.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/0/0d/201x_Practice_Paper_A1_Answers.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/8/84/201x_Practice_Paper_A2_Questions.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/7/78/201x_Practice_Paper_A2_Resources.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resources
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/36/201x_Practice_Paper_A2_Answers.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2018 AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/f7/H004-01_Question_Paper_Jun18.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/36/H004_Mark_Scheme_June18.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2018 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/42/2018_Paper_1_Question_and_Answer.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions and mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/a/a9/2018_Paper_2_Question_and_Answer.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions and mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/b/b6/2018_Paper_2_Resources.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resources

==2019 AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/c/c0/2019_AS_Questions.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/a/a4/2019_AS_Answers.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2019 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/6/69/2019_DesEng_Paper_1_Questions.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/0/02/2019_DesEng_Paper_1_Answers.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/fc/Design_Engineering_2019_Paper_1.pdf Paper 1] model solution
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/b/b8/2019_DesEng_Paper_2_Questions.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/a/a4/2019_DesEng_Paper_2_Resources.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resources
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/7/73/2019_DesEng_Paper_2_Marks.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/9/9b/Design_Engineering_2019_Paper_2.pdf Paper 2] model solution

==2020 AS Paper==
*No AS paper was published in 2020 due to the Covid-19 pandemic.

==2020 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/e/e9/Paper_1.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/f2/H404_01_MS_Nov20.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/43/Paper_2.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/2/2d/Paper_2_Resource_booklet.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/11/H404_02_MS_Nov20.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2021 AS Paper==
*No AS paper was published in 2021 due to the Covid-19 pandemic.

==2021 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/ff/H404-01_QP_Oct21.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/1d/H404-01_MS_Oct21.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/d/df/H404-02_QP_Oct21.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/e/ef/H404-02_Resource_Booklet_Oct21.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/3c/H404-02_MS_Oct21.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2022 AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/4f/H004-01_QP_Jun22.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/41/H004-01_MS_Jun22.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2022 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/19/H404-01_QP_Jun22.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/5/54/H404-01_MS_Jun22.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/30/H404-02_QP_Jun22.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/6/62/H404-02_RB_Jun22.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/4b/H404-02_MS_Jun22.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2023 AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/e/ee/2023_AS_Paper.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/d/d1/2023_AS_Paper_Marks.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2023 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/5/51/Question_paper_June_2023_%28H40401%29.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/16/Mark_scheme_June_2023_%28H40401%29.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/a/a9/Question_paper_June_2023_%28H40402%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/3b/Resource_booklet_June_2023_%28H40402%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/3e/Mark_scheme_June_2023_%28H40402%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2024 AS Paper==
*No AS paper was produced for Summer 2024

==2024 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/9/95/Question_paper_June_2024_%28H404_01%29.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/9/90/Mark_scheme_June_2024_%28H404_01%29.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/e/e9/Question_paper_June_2024_%28H404_02%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/8/82/Resource_booklet_June_2024_%28H404_02%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/f0/Mark_scheme_June_2024_%28H404_02%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2025 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/40/Question_paper_June_2025_%28H40401%29.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/5/54/Mark_scheme_June_2025_%28H40401%29.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*PENDING
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/e/e9/Question_paper_June_2024_%28H404_02%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/8/82/Resource_booklet_June_2024_%28H404_02%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/f0/Mark_scheme_June_2024_%28H404_02%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==Other items==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/f3/Feb_2020_Y12_PUPG.pdf Feb 2020 PUPG] exam paper

[[Design_Engineering|Design Engineering homepage]]

File:Mark scheme June 2025 (H40401).pdf

2026-01-22T09:11:32Z

Stsb11:

File:Question paper June 2025 (H40401).pdf

2026-01-22T09:10:04Z

Stsb11:

Manufacturing processes and techniques

2025-12-14T19:00:20Z

Stsb11: /* 7.3a Demonstrate an understanding of the industrial processes and machinery used for manufacturing component parts in various materials, including: */

==Materials and processes used to make iterative models==

==7.1a Understand that 3D iterative models can be made from a range of materials and components to create block models and working prototypes to communicate and test ideas, moving parts and structural integrity==

==7.1b Demonstrate an understanding of simple processes that can be used to model ideas using hand tools and digital tools such as rapid prototyping, or digital simulation packages.==
[[File:solidworks_example.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Solidworks is an example of 3D software used to model working prototypes. This software can be used to digitally simulate models. Other software packages that can be used are Circuit Wizard.
[[File:circuit_wizard_example.gif|500px|thumb|center]]
#Materials and processes used to make final prototypes

==7.2a Understand how to select and safely use of common workshop tools, equipment and machinery to manipulate materials by methods of:==
===wasting/subtraction processes such as cutting, drilling, turning, milling===
#Cutting is the separation of a physical object, into two or more portions, through the application of an acutely directed force.
#Chip forming - sawing, drilling, milling, turning etc.
#Shearing - punching, stamping, scissoring.
#Abrading - grinding, lapping, polishing; water-jet.
#Heat - flame cutting, plasma cutting, laser cutting.
#Electrochemical - etching, electrical discharge machining (EDM).
#Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool, often multi-point. The bit is pressed against the work-piece and rotated at rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute.
[[File:drilling_process.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Turning is a form of machining, a material removal process, which is used to create rotational parts by cutting away unwanted material. The turning process requires a turning machine or lathe, workpiece, fixture, and cutting tool.
<center><youtube>8EsAxOnzEms</youtube></center>
#Milling is the most common form of machining, a material removal process, which can create a variety of features on a part by cutting away the unwanted material. The milling process requires a milling machine, workpiece, fixture, and cutter.
<center><youtube>eJR-G-3Kvsk</youtube></center>
===addition processes such as soldering, brazing, welding, adhesives, fasteners===
#Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and then flowing a filler metal into the joint—the filler metal having a relatively low melting point. Soldering is used to form a permanent connection between electronic components.
[[File:soldering.jpeg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Brazing is a metal-joining process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point than the adjoining metal.
[[File:brazing.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#There are many different types of welding.
[[File:welding_processes.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Click on the links below to read more about the main types of welding:
##[http://www.technologystudent.com/equip_flsh/acet1.html Gas welding]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_welding Arc welding]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_metal_arc_welding MIG welding]
#Adhesives may be used interchangeably with glue, cement, mucilage, or paste, and is any substance applied to one surface, or both surfaces, of two separate items that binds them together and resists their separation.
##To read up on different types of glues/adhesives, click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/joints/stglu1.htm this] link to go to www.technologystudent.com to read more on this.
#A fastener is a hardware device that mechanically joins or affixes two or more objects together. In general, fasteners are used to create non-permanent joints; that is, joints that can be removed or dismantled without damaging the joining components.

[[File:fastners.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

===deforming and reforming processes such as bending, vacuum forming===
#There are many different ways to bend different types of materials. Line bending is a common way of bending plastics. Click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/joints/desk17.htm this] link to read more about line bending.
#If you want to bend pipes or tubes, click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/equip_flsh/pipe1.html this] link to read more about it.
#Vacuum forming is a simplified version of thermoforming, where a sheet of plastic is heated to a forming temperature, stretched onto a single-surface mold, and forced against the mould by a vacuum. This process can be used to form plastic into permanent objects such as turnpike signs and protective covers. Normally draft angles are present in the design of the mould (a recommended minimum of 3°) to ease removal of the formed plastic part from the mold.
[[File:vaccuum_forming.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
[[File:vaccuum_forming_machine.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
<center><youtube>BqV_jsxD0UA&t</youtube></center>

==7.2b Demonstrate an understanding of the role of computer-aided manufacture (CAM) and computer-aided engineering (CAE) to fabricate parts, such as:==
===additive manufacturing (3D printing) to fabricate a usable part===
#3D printing refers to processes in which material is joined or solidified under computer control to create a three-dimensional object, with material being added together (such as liquid molecules or powder grains being fused together). 3D printing is used in both rapid prototyping and additive manufacturing (AM). Objects can be of almost any shape or geometry and typically are produced using digital model data from a 3D model or another electronic data source such as an Additive Manufacturing File (AMF) file (usually in sequential layers). Stereolithography (STL) is one of the most common file types that is used for 3D printing. Thus, unlike material removed from a stock in the conventional machining process, 3D printing or AM builds a three-dimensional object from computer-aided design (CAD) model or AMF file, usually by successively adding material layer by layer.
<center><youtube>Gwro2HzxMgw&t</youtube></center>
===subtractive CNC manufacturing such as laser/plasma cutting, milling, turning and routing===
#To read more about the world of CNC machining, click on the links below.
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_cutting Laser cutting]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_cutting Plasma cutting]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milling_(machining) CNC milling]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turning CNC turning]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNC_router CNC router]

==7.2c Demonstrate an understanding of measuring instruments and techniques used to ensure that products are manufactured accurately or within tolerances as appropriate.==
#There are many instruments that can be used to measure sizes of products. The 2 most common ones you will use are the:
##Steel rule
[[File:steel_rule.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

##Vernier Caliper
[[File:vernier.png|500px|thumb|center]]
#To read more about the vernier caliper, click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/equip1/vernier3.htm this] link to go to www.technologystudent.com to read how to use the measuring instrument.
#Other tools are available to measure products, such as a 'dial test indicator' or a 'micrometer'.

==7.2d Understand how the available forms, costs and working properties of materials contribute to the decisions about suitability of materials when developing and manufacturing their own products.==
#In every decision about manufacturing a product, the cost of the overall product is very important to a manufacturer as this will determine profits. When deciding on the materials to be used in a product, there are many decisions that will need to be made. First you would need to find as many suitable materials as possible, considering as many possibilities as you can, such as, corrosion resistance or longevity.
#Once you have selected suitable materials for your product, you will then need to consider cost, practicalities, such as manufacturing processes. This will need to be completed before deciding on the end material.
#Materials and processes used to make commercial products

==7.3a Demonstrate an understanding of the industrial processes and machinery used for manufacturing component parts in various materials, including:==
===polymer moulding methods, such as injection moulding, blow moulding, compression moulding and thermoforming===
<center><youtube>b1U9W4iNDiQ</youtube></center>
#Injection moulding is a manufacturing process for producing parts by injecting molten material into a mould. Injection moulding can be performed with a host of materials mainly including metals, (for which the process is called die-casting), glasses, elastomers, confections, and most commonly thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers. Material for the part is fed into a heated barrel, mixed (Using a helical shaped screw), and injected (Forced) into a mould cavity, where it cools and hardens to the configuration of the cavity. After a product is designed, usually by an industrial designer or an engineer, moulds are made by a mould-maker (or toolmaker) from metal, usually either steel or aluminium, and precision-machined to form the features of the desired part. Injection moulding is widely used for manufacturing a variety of parts, from the smallest components to entire body panels of cars. Advances in 3D printing technology, using photopolymers which do not melt during the injection moulding of some lower temperature thermoplastics, can be used for some simple injection moulds.
[[File:injection_moulding.png|500px|thumb|center]]

#Blow molding is a manufacturing process by which hollow plastic parts are formed: It is also used for forming glass bottles. In general, there are three main types of blow molding: extrusion blow molding, injection blow molding, and injection stretch blow molding. The blow molding process begins with melting down the plastic and forming it into a parison or in the case of injection and injection stretch blow moulding (ISB) a preform. The parison is a tube-like piece of plastic with a hole in one end through which compressed air can pass.

[[File:blow_molding.png|500px|thumb|center]]
<center><youtube>NE4c1gwzPb4</youtube></center>
#Extrusion moulding is a manufacturing process used to make pipes, hoses, drinking straws, curtain tracks, rods. Plastic granules melt into a liquid which is forced through a die, forming a long 'tube like' shape. The shape of the die determines the shape of the tube. The extrusion is then cooled and forms a solid shape. The tube may be printed upon, and cut at equal intervals. The pieces may be rolled for storage or packed together. Shapes that can result from extrusion include T-sections, U-sections, square sections, I-sections, L-sections and circular sections. Extrusion is similar to injection moulding except that a long continuous shape is produced. Learn more [https://www.technologystudent.com/equip1/plasextru1.html here].

#Compression Molding is a method of molding in which the moulding material, generally preheated, is first placed in an open, heated mould cavity. The mold is closed with a top force or plug member, pressure is applied to force the material into contact with all mold areas, while heat and pressure are maintained until the molding material has cured. The process employs thermosetting resins in a partially cured stage, either in the form of granules, putty-like masses, or preforms.

[[File:compression_molding.png|500px|thumb|center]]

#Thermoforming is a manufacturing process where a plastic sheet is heated to a pliable forming temperature, formed to a specific shape in a mold, and trimmed to create a usable product. The sheet, or "film" when referring to thinner gauges and certain material types, is heated in an oven to a high-enough temperature that permits it to be stretched into or onto a mold and cooled to a finished shape. Its simplified version is vacuum forming.

[[File:Thermoforming.gif|500px|thumb|center]]

===Metal casting - Sand Casting===
#Sand casting, also known as sand molded casting, is a metal casting process characterized by using sand as the mold material. The term "sand casting" can also refer to an object produced via the sand casting process. Sand castings are produced in specialized factories called foundries. Over 70% of all metal castings are produced via sand casting process.

[[File:sand_casting.png|500px|thumb|center]]

===Metal casting - Die Casting===
#Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterised by forcing molten metal under high pressure into a mould cavity. The mould cavity is created using two hardened tool steel dies which have been machined into shape and work similarly to an injection mould during the process. Most die castings are made from non-ferrous metals, specifically zinc, copper, aluminium, magnesium, lead, pewter and tin-based alloys. Depending on the type of metal being cast, a hot- or cold-chamber machine is used. The steps are...
##Moulds machined from HSS using a CNC milling machine.
##Molten aluminium alloy added to die casting machine.
##Molten aluminium forced into die by piston.
##Water cooling of casting.
##Split dies open and ejector pins eject the cast part.
##Finished part is 'fettled' (the rough edges are sanded/tidied) to remove flashing where the two halves of the mould came together.
##If required, the part can then be painted (e.g. by spraying or a dip-coating process)
[[File:die_casting.png|500px|thumb|center]]

===Sheet metal forming methods using equipment such as punches, rollers, shears and stamping machines===
#Punching is a forming process that uses a punch press to force a tool, called a punch, through the workpiece to create a hole via shearing. Punching is applicable to a wide variety of materials that come in sheet form, including sheet metal, paper, vulcanized fibre and some forms of plastic sheet. The punch often passes through the work into a die. A scrap slug from the hole is deposited into the die in the process. Depending on the material being punched this slug may be recycled and reused or discarded.

[[File:punching.jpeg|500px|thumb|center]]

#Sheet metal rolling.
<center><youtube>1EGnHsYoKH0</youtube></center>

#Shearing, also known as die cutting, is a process which cuts stock without the formation of chips or the use of burning or melting. Strictly speaking, if the cutting blades are straight the process is called shearing; if the cutting blades are curved then they are shearing-type operations. The most commonly sheared materials are in the form of sheet metal or plates, however rods can also be sheared.

[[File:shear.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

#Stamping (also known as pressing) is the process of placing flat sheet metal in either blank or coil form into a stamping press where a tool and die surface forms the metal into a net shape. Stamping includes a variety of sheet-metal forming manufacturing processes, such as punching using a machine press or stamping press, blanking, embossing, bending, flanging, and coining.

[[File:stamping.gif|500px|thumb|center]]

==7.3b Demonstrate an understanding of the industrial methods used for assembling electronic products, such as:==
===surface mount technology (SMT)===
#PCB assembly using solder stencils, pick-and-place machines and reflow soldering ovens.
#Watch the video below, this is a homemade machine, but it shows clearly the process of picking and placing surface mount (SMT) compinents to a PCB.

<center><youtube>CRSLbo_8nTQ</youtube></center>

#Below is a video explaining what reflow soldering is. Below that video is one explaining how the relow soldering oven work. It is selling a product, if you skip to 1:20, you will see how it works.
<center><youtube>eOUf59iut3s</youtube></center>
<center><youtube>Zw53kxy7yL0</youtube></center>

===CNC manufacturing such as laser/plasma cutting, milling, turning and routing===
#Watch the videos below to see the above CNC machines in action.
#CNC plasma cutting (the same as laser cutting)

<center><youtube>sKLdrHo2RWs</youtube></center>

#CNC milling machine.

'''Please note:''' the milling turns to CNC turning at 7:35 in the video below.

<center><youtube>7iKmTnZvA34</youtube></center>

#CNC turning machine.

<center><youtube>MwgobIVj4fU</youtube></center>

#CNC routing machine.

<center><youtube>txCMvRF4Bm8</youtube></center>

==7.3c Demonstrate an understanding of the benefits and flexibility of using computer-controlled machinery.==
===Automated material handling systems===
#Automated Materials Handling. Automated materials handling (AMH) refers to any automation that reduces or eliminates the need for humans to check-in, check-out, sort material, or to move totes and bins containing library material.
#Robot arms to stack, assemble, join and paint parts.
##Click [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v%3DgUWCljX7oa0 here] to watch a video of a robot being used to paint a car.
##Click [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v%3DLVtBjFUfFLE here] to watch a video of a robotic assembly line.

==7.3d Understand the necessity for manufacturers to optimise the use of materials and production processes.==
===Economical cutting and costing===

===Working to a budget through efficient manufacture===

==7.4a The methods used for manufacturing at different scales of production, including:==
===one-off, bespoke production===
#Job production, sometimes called jobbing or *one-off* production, involves producing custom work, such as a one-off product for a specific customer or a small batch of work in quantities usually less than those of mass-market products.

===Batch production===
#Batch production is a technique used in manufacturing, in which the object in question is created stage by stage over a series of workstations, and different batches of products are made.

===Mass production===
#Mass production is the manufacture of large quantities of standardized products, frequently utilizing assembly line technology. Mass production refers to the process of creating large numbers of similar products efficiently.

===Cell Manufacturing===
#Cell production is a manufacturing method where work is organised into small teams (“cells”). Each cell responsible for completing a whole unit of work or a significant part of it.
#The workers in the cell carry out a range of tasks and are often multi-skilled. Workers are multi-skilled and can rotate tasks within the cell.
#Examples: Electronics assembly, Automotive sub-assembly, power tool manufacture.
#Advantages:
##Improved communication within the cell as team members work closely together.
##Greater worker motivation due to team ownership, responsibility, and variety of tasks.
##Higher flexibility, as cells can be quickly reconfigured for different products.
##Better quality as teams monitor their own work and spot defects earlier.
#Disadvantages:
##Initial set-up cost can be high (reorganising layout, training staff).
##Not suitable for very high-volume mass production, where continuous flow lines are more efficient.
##If one cell stops, it can affect the whole production flow.
##Requires multi-skilled workers, which may require training and higher wages.

===lean manufacturing and just-in-time (JIT) methods===
#Lean manufacturing or lean production, often simply "lean", is a systematic method for waste minimization ("Muda") within a manufacturing system without sacrificing productivity. Lean also takes into account waste created through overburden ("Muri") and waste created through unevenness in work loads ("Mura"). Working from the perspective of the client who consumes a product or service, "value" is any action or process that a customer would be willing to pay for.
#Just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing, also known as just in time production is a methodology aimed at reducing flow times within production system as well as response times from suppliers and to customers. Its origin and development was in Japan, largely in the 1960s and 1970s and particularly at Toyota.
##Involves holding minimal stock within a factory, having production planned so that raw material arrives ‘just in time’ to be put onto the shop floor.
##Avoids carrying large amounts of stock or finished product that needs looking after.
##Once made, products are shipped as quickly as possible.
##This relies on meticulous organisation - any delays to delivery will hit productivity quickly and so are avoided.

===Fully automated manufacture===
#Lights out (manufacturing) Lights out or lights-out manufacturing is a manufacturing methodology (or philosophy), rather than a specific process. Factories that run lights out are fully automated and require no human presence on-site.
#Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lights_out_(manufacturing) here] to read more about 'lights out' manufacturing.

==7.4b Understanding how ICT and digital technologies are changing modern manufacturing.==
===Customised manufacture systems===
#In the custom manufacturing system, each item is produced by a single craftsperson, who works solely by hand or with the help of a machine. ... As a result, custom-manufactured products are of the highest quality but are also the most expensive products in the market.

===Rapid prototyping===
#Rapid prototyping is a group of techniques used to quickly fabricate a scale model of a physical part or assembly using three-dimensional computer aided design (CAD) data. Construction of the part or assembly is usually done using 3D printing or "additive layer manufacturing" technology.

===Additive and digital manufacture methods===
#Additive Manufacturing refers to a process by which digital 3D design data is used to build up a component in layers by depositing material. The term "3D printing" is increasingly used as a synonym for Additive Manufacturing. However, the latter is more accurate in that it describes a professional production technique which is clearly distinguished from conventional methods of material removal. Instead of milling a workpiece from solid block, for example, Additive Manufacturing builds up components layer by layer using materials which are available in fine powder form. A range of different metals, plastics and composite materials may be used.

===Stock control, monitoring logistics in industry===
#Stock control, monitoring logistics is the fact or process of ensuring that appropriate amounts of stock are maintained by a business, so as to be able to meet customer demand without delay while keeping the costs associated with holding stock to a minimum.

==7.5a Understanding the process that needs to be undertaken to ensure products meet legal requirements and are high quality.==
#Total Quality management (TQM) is the continual process of detecting and reducing or eliminating errors in manufacturing, streamlining supply chain management, improving quality and customer experience.
#In a TQM business model, all areas of a business and its suppliers use agreed specifications and quality control methods, and quality is the responsibility of everyone. This happens where a company has a desire to gain customer satisfaction, aiming to guarantee the manufacture of a quality product, every time.
#TQM seeks to improve both quality of product and efficiency in manufacture.
#This is implemented through three areas:

===Management===
#Reviewing and monitoring every stage of the process.
#ISO9000 certification process to appreciate quality in house and from suppliers.
#BS 7850 as a standard for effective management of human resources and materials.
#Poke-Yokes as a simple checking strategy to eliminate errors arising for relative labour-intensive tasks.
#Implementation of Kaizen as a method of continuous improvement as workers are best placed to suggest improvements to processes and feel empowered and wanted within their jobs.
#Employees encouraged to take pride in their work and are trained to perform their work optimally.

===Quality Assurance===
#Check for quality raw materials / components from suppliers.
#Checking every stage of the manufacturing process.
#Induction / ongoing training for staff to ensure they understand how to achieve quality.
#Checking against the specification to ensure customer requirements.

===Quality Control===
#Random Sampling of parts and components as they are being manufactured.
#Every employee is responsible for their quality standards.
#Tolerances in place to ensure upper and lower dimensional allowances.

==QA Vs QC==
#During the manufacturing process, QC and QA are vital to ensure a high-quality end product which is safe, and meets client expectation. In the areas such as aeronautical, automotive and medical industries, getting this right can have life or death implications.
#QC is like checking from time to time that your goldfish is still alive. With QA, you would also aim to make sure that the filter and pump work correctly, the water is the right temperature and is changed on schedule, and that everyone in the household knows when and how much to feed it.
#Quality Control is where a product is inspected or tested to ensure that it meets the requirements for the specific product. For instance, a car part may need to be made from aluminium, weight 54.5g and measure 3mm x 6mm. If out of 50 parts inspected, 49 match these requirements, but one weighs 55g and is 3mm x 6.5mm, that part would fail its quality control check. Quality Control does not ensure quality – it informs where it is missing.
#Quality Assurance seeks to look more closely at the process of making the product, seeks to find common areas where quality has the potential to slip and looks to address these so that manufactured parts fail less often. This can happen right through the design, development and manufacture stages.
#[http://www.iso9001consultant.com.au/QA.html Read more here]

==European and British standards==
#It comprises a set of questions and answers that summarizes the role of standards in the European Single Market. The information in this document has been prepared by BSI (British Standards Institution), which is appointed by the UK Government (HMG) to act as the UK National Standards Body (NSB).

[[Design_Engineering|Design Engineering homepage]]

Manufacturing processes and techniques

2025-12-14T17:59:29Z

Stsb11: /* Cell Manufacturing */

==Materials and processes used to make iterative models==

==7.1a Understand that 3D iterative models can be made from a range of materials and components to create block models and working prototypes to communicate and test ideas, moving parts and structural integrity==

==7.1b Demonstrate an understanding of simple processes that can be used to model ideas using hand tools and digital tools such as rapid prototyping, or digital simulation packages.==
[[File:solidworks_example.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Solidworks is an example of 3D software used to model working prototypes. This software can be used to digitally simulate models. Other software packages that can be used are Circuit Wizard.
[[File:circuit_wizard_example.gif|500px|thumb|center]]
#Materials and processes used to make final prototypes

==7.2a Understand how to select and safely use of common workshop tools, equipment and machinery to manipulate materials by methods of:==
===wasting/subtraction processes such as cutting, drilling, turning, milling===
#Cutting is the separation of a physical object, into two or more portions, through the application of an acutely directed force.
#Chip forming - sawing, drilling, milling, turning etc.
#Shearing - punching, stamping, scissoring.
#Abrading - grinding, lapping, polishing; water-jet.
#Heat - flame cutting, plasma cutting, laser cutting.
#Electrochemical - etching, electrical discharge machining (EDM).
#Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool, often multi-point. The bit is pressed against the work-piece and rotated at rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute.
[[File:drilling_process.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Turning is a form of machining, a material removal process, which is used to create rotational parts by cutting away unwanted material. The turning process requires a turning machine or lathe, workpiece, fixture, and cutting tool.
<center><youtube>8EsAxOnzEms</youtube></center>
#Milling is the most common form of machining, a material removal process, which can create a variety of features on a part by cutting away the unwanted material. The milling process requires a milling machine, workpiece, fixture, and cutter.
<center><youtube>eJR-G-3Kvsk</youtube></center>
===addition processes such as soldering, brazing, welding, adhesives, fasteners===
#Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and then flowing a filler metal into the joint—the filler metal having a relatively low melting point. Soldering is used to form a permanent connection between electronic components.
[[File:soldering.jpeg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Brazing is a metal-joining process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point than the adjoining metal.
[[File:brazing.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#There are many different types of welding.
[[File:welding_processes.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Click on the links below to read more about the main types of welding:
##[http://www.technologystudent.com/equip_flsh/acet1.html Gas welding]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_welding Arc welding]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_metal_arc_welding MIG welding]
#Adhesives may be used interchangeably with glue, cement, mucilage, or paste, and is any substance applied to one surface, or both surfaces, of two separate items that binds them together and resists their separation.
##To read up on different types of glues/adhesives, click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/joints/stglu1.htm this] link to go to www.technologystudent.com to read more on this.
#A fastener is a hardware device that mechanically joins or affixes two or more objects together. In general, fasteners are used to create non-permanent joints; that is, joints that can be removed or dismantled without damaging the joining components.

[[File:fastners.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

===deforming and reforming processes such as bending, vacuum forming===
#There are many different ways to bend different types of materials. Line bending is a common way of bending plastics. Click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/joints/desk17.htm this] link to read more about line bending.
#If you want to bend pipes or tubes, click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/equip_flsh/pipe1.html this] link to read more about it.
#Vacuum forming is a simplified version of thermoforming, where a sheet of plastic is heated to a forming temperature, stretched onto a single-surface mold, and forced against the mould by a vacuum. This process can be used to form plastic into permanent objects such as turnpike signs and protective covers. Normally draft angles are present in the design of the mould (a recommended minimum of 3°) to ease removal of the formed plastic part from the mold.
[[File:vaccuum_forming.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
[[File:vaccuum_forming_machine.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
<center><youtube>BqV_jsxD0UA&t</youtube></center>

==7.2b Demonstrate an understanding of the role of computer-aided manufacture (CAM) and computer-aided engineering (CAE) to fabricate parts, such as:==
===additive manufacturing (3D printing) to fabricate a usable part===
#3D printing refers to processes in which material is joined or solidified under computer control to create a three-dimensional object, with material being added together (such as liquid molecules or powder grains being fused together). 3D printing is used in both rapid prototyping and additive manufacturing (AM). Objects can be of almost any shape or geometry and typically are produced using digital model data from a 3D model or another electronic data source such as an Additive Manufacturing File (AMF) file (usually in sequential layers). Stereolithography (STL) is one of the most common file types that is used for 3D printing. Thus, unlike material removed from a stock in the conventional machining process, 3D printing or AM builds a three-dimensional object from computer-aided design (CAD) model or AMF file, usually by successively adding material layer by layer.
<center><youtube>Gwro2HzxMgw&t</youtube></center>
===subtractive CNC manufacturing such as laser/plasma cutting, milling, turning and routing===
#To read more about the world of CNC machining, click on the links below.
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_cutting Laser cutting]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_cutting Plasma cutting]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milling_(machining) CNC milling]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turning CNC turning]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNC_router CNC router]

==7.2c Demonstrate an understanding of measuring instruments and techniques used to ensure that products are manufactured accurately or within tolerances as appropriate.==
#There are many instruments that can be used to measure sizes of products. The 2 most common ones you will use are the:
##Steel rule
[[File:steel_rule.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

##Vernier Caliper
[[File:vernier.png|500px|thumb|center]]
#To read more about the vernier caliper, click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/equip1/vernier3.htm this] link to go to www.technologystudent.com to read how to use the measuring instrument.
#Other tools are available to measure products, such as a 'dial test indicator' or a 'micrometer'.

==7.2d Understand how the available forms, costs and working properties of materials contribute to the decisions about suitability of materials when developing and manufacturing their own products.==
#In every decision about manufacturing a product, the cost of the overall product is very important to a manufacturer as this will determine profits. When deciding on the materials to be used in a product, there are many decisions that will need to be made. First you would need to find as many suitable materials as possible, considering as many possibilities as you can, such as, corrosion resistance or longevity.
#Once you have selected suitable materials for your product, you will then need to consider cost, practicalities, such as manufacturing processes. This will need to be completed before deciding on the end material.
#Materials and processes used to make commercial products

==7.3a Demonstrate an understanding of the industrial processes and machinery used for manufacturing component parts in various materials, including:==
#polymer moulding methods, such as injection moulding, blow moulding, compression moulding and thermoforming.
<center><youtube>b1U9W4iNDiQ</youtube></center>
#Injection moulding is a manufacturing process for producing parts by injecting molten material into a mould. Injection moulding can be performed with a host of materials mainly including metals, (for which the process is called die-casting), glasses, elastomers, confections, and most commonly thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers. Material for the part is fed into a heated barrel, mixed (Using a helical shaped screw), and injected (Forced) into a mould cavity, where it cools and hardens to the configuration of the cavity. After a product is designed, usually by an industrial designer or an engineer, moulds are made by a mould-maker (or toolmaker) from metal, usually either steel or aluminium, and precision-machined to form the features of the desired part. Injection moulding is widely used for manufacturing a variety of parts, from the smallest components to entire body panels of cars. Advances in 3D printing technology, using photopolymers which do not melt during the injection moulding of some lower temperature thermoplastics, can be used for some simple injection moulds.
[[File:injection_moulding.png|500px|thumb|center]]

#Blow molding is a manufacturing process by which hollow plastic parts are formed: It is also used for forming glass bottles. In general, there are three main types of blow molding: extrusion blow molding, injection blow molding, and injection stretch blow molding. The blow molding process begins with melting down the plastic and forming it into a parison or in the case of injection and injection stretch blow moulding (ISB) a preform. The parison is a tube-like piece of plastic with a hole in one end through which compressed air can pass.

[[File:blow_molding.png|500px|thumb|center]]
<center><youtube>NE4c1gwzPb4</youtube></center>
#Extrusion moulding is a manufacturing process used to make pipes, hoses, drinking straws, curtain tracks, rods. Plastic granules melt into a liquid which is forced through a die, forming a long 'tube like' shape. The shape of the die determines the shape of the tube. The extrusion is then cooled and forms a solid shape. The tube may be printed upon, and cut at equal intervals. The pieces may be rolled for storage or packed together. Shapes that can result from extrusion include T-sections, U-sections, square sections, I-sections, L-sections and circular sections. Extrusion is similar to injection moulding except that a long continuous shape is produced. Learn more [https://www.technologystudent.com/equip1/plasextru1.html here].

#Compression Molding is a method of molding in which the moulding material, generally preheated, is first placed in an open, heated mould cavity. The mold is closed with a top force or plug member, pressure is applied to force the material into contact with all mold areas, while heat and pressure are maintained until the molding material has cured. The process employs thermosetting resins in a partially cured stage, either in the form of granules, putty-like masses, or preforms.

[[File:compression_molding.png|500px|thumb|center]]

#Thermoforming is a manufacturing process where a plastic sheet is heated to a pliable forming temperature, formed to a specific shape in a mold, and trimmed to create a usable product. The sheet, or "film" when referring to thinner gauges and certain material types, is heated in an oven to a high-enough temperature that permits it to be stretched into or onto a mold and cooled to a finished shape. Its simplified version is vacuum forming.

[[File:Thermoforming.gif|500px|thumb|center]]

===metal casting methods such as sand casting and die casting===
#Sand casting, also known as sand molded casting, is a metal casting process characterized by using sand as the mold material. The term "sand casting" can also refer to an object produced via the sand casting process. Sand castings are produced in specialized factories called foundries. Over 70% of all metal castings are produced via sand casting process.

[[File:sand_casting.png|500px|thumb|center]]

#Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterised by forcing molten metal under high pressure into a mould cavity. The mould cavity is created using two hardened tool steel dies which have been machined into shape and work similarly to an injection mould during the process. Most die castings are made from non-ferrous metals, specifically zinc, copper, aluminium, magnesium, lead, pewter and tin-based alloys. Depending on the type of metal being cast, a hot- or cold-chamber machine is used. The steps are...
##Moulds machined from HSS using a CNC milling machine.
##Molten aluminium alloy added to die casting machine.
##Molten aluminium forced into die by piston.
##Water cooling of casting.
##Split dies open and ejector pins eject the cast part.
##Finished part is 'fettled' (the rough edges are sanded/tidied) to remove flashing where the two halves of the mould came together.
##If required, the part can then be painted (e.g. by spraying or a dip-coating process)
[[File:die_casting.png|500px|thumb|center]]

===sheet metal forming methods using equipment such as punches, rollers, shears and stamping machines===
#Punching is a forming process that uses a punch press to force a tool, called a punch, through the workpiece to create a hole via shearing. Punching is applicable to a wide variety of materials that come in sheet form, including sheet metal, paper, vulcanized fibre and some forms of plastic sheet. The punch often passes through the work into a die. A scrap slug from the hole is deposited into the die in the process. Depending on the material being punched this slug may be recycled and reused or discarded.

[[File:punching.jpeg|500px|thumb|center]]

#Sheet metal rolling.
<center><youtube>1EGnHsYoKH0</youtube></center>

#Shearing, also known as die cutting, is a process which cuts stock without the formation of chips or the use of burning or melting. Strictly speaking, if the cutting blades are straight the process is called shearing; if the cutting blades are curved then they are shearing-type operations. The most commonly sheared materials are in the form of sheet metal or plates, however rods can also be sheared.

[[File:shear.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

#Stamping (also known as pressing) is the process of placing flat sheet metal in either blank or coil form into a stamping press where a tool and die surface forms the metal into a net shape. Stamping includes a variety of sheet-metal forming manufacturing processes, such as punching using a machine press or stamping press, blanking, embossing, bending, flanging, and coining.

[[File:stamping.gif|500px|thumb|center]]

==7.3b Demonstrate an understanding of the industrial methods used for assembling electronic products, such as:==
===surface mount technology (SMT)===
#PCB assembly using solder stencils, pick-and-place machines and reflow soldering ovens.
#Watch the video below, this is a homemade machine, but it shows clearly the process of picking and placing surface mount (SMT) compinents to a PCB.

<center><youtube>CRSLbo_8nTQ</youtube></center>

#Below is a video explaining what reflow soldering is. Below that video is one explaining how the relow soldering oven work. It is selling a product, if you skip to 1:20, you will see how it works.
<center><youtube>eOUf59iut3s</youtube></center>
<center><youtube>Zw53kxy7yL0</youtube></center>

===CNC manufacturing such as laser/plasma cutting, milling, turning and routing===
#Watch the videos below to see the above CNC machines in action.
#CNC plasma cutting (the same as laser cutting)

<center><youtube>sKLdrHo2RWs</youtube></center>

#CNC milling machine.

'''Please note:''' the milling turns to CNC turning at 7:35 in the video below.

<center><youtube>7iKmTnZvA34</youtube></center>

#CNC turning machine.

<center><youtube>MwgobIVj4fU</youtube></center>

#CNC routing machine.

<center><youtube>txCMvRF4Bm8</youtube></center>

==7.3c Demonstrate an understanding of the benefits and flexibility of using computer-controlled machinery.==
===Automated material handling systems===
#Automated Materials Handling. Automated materials handling (AMH) refers to any automation that reduces or eliminates the need for humans to check-in, check-out, sort material, or to move totes and bins containing library material.
#Robot arms to stack, assemble, join and paint parts.
##Click [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v%3DgUWCljX7oa0 here] to watch a video of a robot being used to paint a car.
##Click [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v%3DLVtBjFUfFLE here] to watch a video of a robotic assembly line.

==7.3d Understand the necessity for manufacturers to optimise the use of materials and production processes.==
===Economical cutting and costing===

===Working to a budget through efficient manufacture===

==7.4a The methods used for manufacturing at different scales of production, including:==
===one-off, bespoke production===
#Job production, sometimes called jobbing or *one-off* production, involves producing custom work, such as a one-off product for a specific customer or a small batch of work in quantities usually less than those of mass-market products.

===Batch production===
#Batch production is a technique used in manufacturing, in which the object in question is created stage by stage over a series of workstations, and different batches of products are made.

===Mass production===
#Mass production is the manufacture of large quantities of standardized products, frequently utilizing assembly line technology. Mass production refers to the process of creating large numbers of similar products efficiently.

===Cell Manufacturing===
#Cell production is a manufacturing method where work is organised into small teams (“cells”). Each cell responsible for completing a whole unit of work or a significant part of it.
#The workers in the cell carry out a range of tasks and are often multi-skilled. Workers are multi-skilled and can rotate tasks within the cell.
#Examples: Electronics assembly, Automotive sub-assembly, power tool manufacture.
#Advantages:
##Improved communication within the cell as team members work closely together.
##Greater worker motivation due to team ownership, responsibility, and variety of tasks.
##Higher flexibility, as cells can be quickly reconfigured for different products.
##Better quality as teams monitor their own work and spot defects earlier.
#Disadvantages:
##Initial set-up cost can be high (reorganising layout, training staff).
##Not suitable for very high-volume mass production, where continuous flow lines are more efficient.
##If one cell stops, it can affect the whole production flow.
##Requires multi-skilled workers, which may require training and higher wages.

===lean manufacturing and just-in-time (JIT) methods===
#Lean manufacturing or lean production, often simply "lean", is a systematic method for waste minimization ("Muda") within a manufacturing system without sacrificing productivity. Lean also takes into account waste created through overburden ("Muri") and waste created through unevenness in work loads ("Mura"). Working from the perspective of the client who consumes a product or service, "value" is any action or process that a customer would be willing to pay for.
#Just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing, also known as just in time production is a methodology aimed at reducing flow times within production system as well as response times from suppliers and to customers. Its origin and development was in Japan, largely in the 1960s and 1970s and particularly at Toyota.
##Involves holding minimal stock within a factory, having production planned so that raw material arrives ‘just in time’ to be put onto the shop floor.
##Avoids carrying large amounts of stock or finished product that needs looking after.
##Once made, products are shipped as quickly as possible.
##This relies on meticulous organisation - any delays to delivery will hit productivity quickly and so are avoided.

===Fully automated manufacture===
#Lights out (manufacturing) Lights out or lights-out manufacturing is a manufacturing methodology (or philosophy), rather than a specific process. Factories that run lights out are fully automated and require no human presence on-site.
#Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lights_out_(manufacturing) here] to read more about 'lights out' manufacturing.

==7.4b Understanding how ICT and digital technologies are changing modern manufacturing.==
===Customised manufacture systems===
#In the custom manufacturing system, each item is produced by a single craftsperson, who works solely by hand or with the help of a machine. ... As a result, custom-manufactured products are of the highest quality but are also the most expensive products in the market.

===Rapid prototyping===
#Rapid prototyping is a group of techniques used to quickly fabricate a scale model of a physical part or assembly using three-dimensional computer aided design (CAD) data. Construction of the part or assembly is usually done using 3D printing or "additive layer manufacturing" technology.

===Additive and digital manufacture methods===
#Additive Manufacturing refers to a process by which digital 3D design data is used to build up a component in layers by depositing material. The term "3D printing" is increasingly used as a synonym for Additive Manufacturing. However, the latter is more accurate in that it describes a professional production technique which is clearly distinguished from conventional methods of material removal. Instead of milling a workpiece from solid block, for example, Additive Manufacturing builds up components layer by layer using materials which are available in fine powder form. A range of different metals, plastics and composite materials may be used.

===Stock control, monitoring logistics in industry===
#Stock control, monitoring logistics is the fact or process of ensuring that appropriate amounts of stock are maintained by a business, so as to be able to meet customer demand without delay while keeping the costs associated with holding stock to a minimum.

==7.5a Understanding the process that needs to be undertaken to ensure products meet legal requirements and are high quality.==
#Total Quality management (TQM) is the continual process of detecting and reducing or eliminating errors in manufacturing, streamlining supply chain management, improving quality and customer experience.
#In a TQM business model, all areas of a business and its suppliers use agreed specifications and quality control methods, and quality is the responsibility of everyone. This happens where a company has a desire to gain customer satisfaction, aiming to guarantee the manufacture of a quality product, every time.
#TQM seeks to improve both quality of product and efficiency in manufacture.
#This is implemented through three areas:

===Management===
#Reviewing and monitoring every stage of the process.
#ISO9000 certification process to appreciate quality in house and from suppliers.
#BS 7850 as a standard for effective management of human resources and materials.
#Poke-Yokes as a simple checking strategy to eliminate errors arising for relative labour-intensive tasks.
#Implementation of Kaizen as a method of continuous improvement as workers are best placed to suggest improvements to processes and feel empowered and wanted within their jobs.
#Employees encouraged to take pride in their work and are trained to perform their work optimally.

===Quality Assurance===
#Check for quality raw materials / components from suppliers.
#Checking every stage of the manufacturing process.
#Induction / ongoing training for staff to ensure they understand how to achieve quality.
#Checking against the specification to ensure customer requirements.

===Quality Control===
#Random Sampling of parts and components as they are being manufactured.
#Every employee is responsible for their quality standards.
#Tolerances in place to ensure upper and lower dimensional allowances.

==QA Vs QC==
#During the manufacturing process, QC and QA are vital to ensure a high-quality end product which is safe, and meets client expectation. In the areas such as aeronautical, automotive and medical industries, getting this right can have life or death implications.
#QC is like checking from time to time that your goldfish is still alive. With QA, you would also aim to make sure that the filter and pump work correctly, the water is the right temperature and is changed on schedule, and that everyone in the household knows when and how much to feed it.
#Quality Control is where a product is inspected or tested to ensure that it meets the requirements for the specific product. For instance, a car part may need to be made from aluminium, weight 54.5g and measure 3mm x 6mm. If out of 50 parts inspected, 49 match these requirements, but one weighs 55g and is 3mm x 6.5mm, that part would fail its quality control check. Quality Control does not ensure quality – it informs where it is missing.
#Quality Assurance seeks to look more closely at the process of making the product, seeks to find common areas where quality has the potential to slip and looks to address these so that manufactured parts fail less often. This can happen right through the design, development and manufacture stages.
#[http://www.iso9001consultant.com.au/QA.html Read more here]

==European and British standards==
#It comprises a set of questions and answers that summarizes the role of standards in the European Single Market. The information in this document has been prepared by BSI (British Standards Institution), which is appointed by the UK Government (HMG) to act as the UK National Standards Body (NSB).

[[Design_Engineering|Design Engineering homepage]]

Manufacturing processes and techniques

2025-12-14T17:59:11Z

Stsb11: /* 7.4a The methods used for manufacturing at different scales of production, including: */

==Materials and processes used to make iterative models==

==7.1a Understand that 3D iterative models can be made from a range of materials and components to create block models and working prototypes to communicate and test ideas, moving parts and structural integrity==

==7.1b Demonstrate an understanding of simple processes that can be used to model ideas using hand tools and digital tools such as rapid prototyping, or digital simulation packages.==
[[File:solidworks_example.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Solidworks is an example of 3D software used to model working prototypes. This software can be used to digitally simulate models. Other software packages that can be used are Circuit Wizard.
[[File:circuit_wizard_example.gif|500px|thumb|center]]
#Materials and processes used to make final prototypes

==7.2a Understand how to select and safely use of common workshop tools, equipment and machinery to manipulate materials by methods of:==
===wasting/subtraction processes such as cutting, drilling, turning, milling===
#Cutting is the separation of a physical object, into two or more portions, through the application of an acutely directed force.
#Chip forming - sawing, drilling, milling, turning etc.
#Shearing - punching, stamping, scissoring.
#Abrading - grinding, lapping, polishing; water-jet.
#Heat - flame cutting, plasma cutting, laser cutting.
#Electrochemical - etching, electrical discharge machining (EDM).
#Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool, often multi-point. The bit is pressed against the work-piece and rotated at rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute.
[[File:drilling_process.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Turning is a form of machining, a material removal process, which is used to create rotational parts by cutting away unwanted material. The turning process requires a turning machine or lathe, workpiece, fixture, and cutting tool.
<center><youtube>8EsAxOnzEms</youtube></center>
#Milling is the most common form of machining, a material removal process, which can create a variety of features on a part by cutting away the unwanted material. The milling process requires a milling machine, workpiece, fixture, and cutter.
<center><youtube>eJR-G-3Kvsk</youtube></center>
===addition processes such as soldering, brazing, welding, adhesives, fasteners===
#Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and then flowing a filler metal into the joint—the filler metal having a relatively low melting point. Soldering is used to form a permanent connection between electronic components.
[[File:soldering.jpeg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Brazing is a metal-joining process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point than the adjoining metal.
[[File:brazing.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#There are many different types of welding.
[[File:welding_processes.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Click on the links below to read more about the main types of welding:
##[http://www.technologystudent.com/equip_flsh/acet1.html Gas welding]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_welding Arc welding]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_metal_arc_welding MIG welding]
#Adhesives may be used interchangeably with glue, cement, mucilage, or paste, and is any substance applied to one surface, or both surfaces, of two separate items that binds them together and resists their separation.
##To read up on different types of glues/adhesives, click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/joints/stglu1.htm this] link to go to www.technologystudent.com to read more on this.
#A fastener is a hardware device that mechanically joins or affixes two or more objects together. In general, fasteners are used to create non-permanent joints; that is, joints that can be removed or dismantled without damaging the joining components.

[[File:fastners.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

===deforming and reforming processes such as bending, vacuum forming===
#There are many different ways to bend different types of materials. Line bending is a common way of bending plastics. Click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/joints/desk17.htm this] link to read more about line bending.
#If you want to bend pipes or tubes, click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/equip_flsh/pipe1.html this] link to read more about it.
#Vacuum forming is a simplified version of thermoforming, where a sheet of plastic is heated to a forming temperature, stretched onto a single-surface mold, and forced against the mould by a vacuum. This process can be used to form plastic into permanent objects such as turnpike signs and protective covers. Normally draft angles are present in the design of the mould (a recommended minimum of 3°) to ease removal of the formed plastic part from the mold.
[[File:vaccuum_forming.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
[[File:vaccuum_forming_machine.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
<center><youtube>BqV_jsxD0UA&t</youtube></center>

==7.2b Demonstrate an understanding of the role of computer-aided manufacture (CAM) and computer-aided engineering (CAE) to fabricate parts, such as:==
===additive manufacturing (3D printing) to fabricate a usable part===
#3D printing refers to processes in which material is joined or solidified under computer control to create a three-dimensional object, with material being added together (such as liquid molecules or powder grains being fused together). 3D printing is used in both rapid prototyping and additive manufacturing (AM). Objects can be of almost any shape or geometry and typically are produced using digital model data from a 3D model or another electronic data source such as an Additive Manufacturing File (AMF) file (usually in sequential layers). Stereolithography (STL) is one of the most common file types that is used for 3D printing. Thus, unlike material removed from a stock in the conventional machining process, 3D printing or AM builds a three-dimensional object from computer-aided design (CAD) model or AMF file, usually by successively adding material layer by layer.
<center><youtube>Gwro2HzxMgw&t</youtube></center>
===subtractive CNC manufacturing such as laser/plasma cutting, milling, turning and routing===
#To read more about the world of CNC machining, click on the links below.
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_cutting Laser cutting]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_cutting Plasma cutting]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milling_(machining) CNC milling]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turning CNC turning]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNC_router CNC router]

==7.2c Demonstrate an understanding of measuring instruments and techniques used to ensure that products are manufactured accurately or within tolerances as appropriate.==
#There are many instruments that can be used to measure sizes of products. The 2 most common ones you will use are the:
##Steel rule
[[File:steel_rule.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

##Vernier Caliper
[[File:vernier.png|500px|thumb|center]]
#To read more about the vernier caliper, click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/equip1/vernier3.htm this] link to go to www.technologystudent.com to read how to use the measuring instrument.
#Other tools are available to measure products, such as a 'dial test indicator' or a 'micrometer'.

==7.2d Understand how the available forms, costs and working properties of materials contribute to the decisions about suitability of materials when developing and manufacturing their own products.==
#In every decision about manufacturing a product, the cost of the overall product is very important to a manufacturer as this will determine profits. When deciding on the materials to be used in a product, there are many decisions that will need to be made. First you would need to find as many suitable materials as possible, considering as many possibilities as you can, such as, corrosion resistance or longevity.
#Once you have selected suitable materials for your product, you will then need to consider cost, practicalities, such as manufacturing processes. This will need to be completed before deciding on the end material.
#Materials and processes used to make commercial products

==7.3a Demonstrate an understanding of the industrial processes and machinery used for manufacturing component parts in various materials, including:==
#polymer moulding methods, such as injection moulding, blow moulding, compression moulding and thermoforming.
<center><youtube>b1U9W4iNDiQ</youtube></center>
#Injection moulding is a manufacturing process for producing parts by injecting molten material into a mould. Injection moulding can be performed with a host of materials mainly including metals, (for which the process is called die-casting), glasses, elastomers, confections, and most commonly thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers. Material for the part is fed into a heated barrel, mixed (Using a helical shaped screw), and injected (Forced) into a mould cavity, where it cools and hardens to the configuration of the cavity. After a product is designed, usually by an industrial designer or an engineer, moulds are made by a mould-maker (or toolmaker) from metal, usually either steel or aluminium, and precision-machined to form the features of the desired part. Injection moulding is widely used for manufacturing a variety of parts, from the smallest components to entire body panels of cars. Advances in 3D printing technology, using photopolymers which do not melt during the injection moulding of some lower temperature thermoplastics, can be used for some simple injection moulds.
[[File:injection_moulding.png|500px|thumb|center]]

#Blow molding is a manufacturing process by which hollow plastic parts are formed: It is also used for forming glass bottles. In general, there are three main types of blow molding: extrusion blow molding, injection blow molding, and injection stretch blow molding. The blow molding process begins with melting down the plastic and forming it into a parison or in the case of injection and injection stretch blow moulding (ISB) a preform. The parison is a tube-like piece of plastic with a hole in one end through which compressed air can pass.

[[File:blow_molding.png|500px|thumb|center]]
<center><youtube>NE4c1gwzPb4</youtube></center>
#Extrusion moulding is a manufacturing process used to make pipes, hoses, drinking straws, curtain tracks, rods. Plastic granules melt into a liquid which is forced through a die, forming a long 'tube like' shape. The shape of the die determines the shape of the tube. The extrusion is then cooled and forms a solid shape. The tube may be printed upon, and cut at equal intervals. The pieces may be rolled for storage or packed together. Shapes that can result from extrusion include T-sections, U-sections, square sections, I-sections, L-sections and circular sections. Extrusion is similar to injection moulding except that a long continuous shape is produced. Learn more [https://www.technologystudent.com/equip1/plasextru1.html here].

#Compression Molding is a method of molding in which the moulding material, generally preheated, is first placed in an open, heated mould cavity. The mold is closed with a top force or plug member, pressure is applied to force the material into contact with all mold areas, while heat and pressure are maintained until the molding material has cured. The process employs thermosetting resins in a partially cured stage, either in the form of granules, putty-like masses, or preforms.

[[File:compression_molding.png|500px|thumb|center]]

#Thermoforming is a manufacturing process where a plastic sheet is heated to a pliable forming temperature, formed to a specific shape in a mold, and trimmed to create a usable product. The sheet, or "film" when referring to thinner gauges and certain material types, is heated in an oven to a high-enough temperature that permits it to be stretched into or onto a mold and cooled to a finished shape. Its simplified version is vacuum forming.

[[File:Thermoforming.gif|500px|thumb|center]]

===metal casting methods such as sand casting and die casting===
#Sand casting, also known as sand molded casting, is a metal casting process characterized by using sand as the mold material. The term "sand casting" can also refer to an object produced via the sand casting process. Sand castings are produced in specialized factories called foundries. Over 70% of all metal castings are produced via sand casting process.

[[File:sand_casting.png|500px|thumb|center]]

#Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterised by forcing molten metal under high pressure into a mould cavity. The mould cavity is created using two hardened tool steel dies which have been machined into shape and work similarly to an injection mould during the process. Most die castings are made from non-ferrous metals, specifically zinc, copper, aluminium, magnesium, lead, pewter and tin-based alloys. Depending on the type of metal being cast, a hot- or cold-chamber machine is used. The steps are...
##Moulds machined from HSS using a CNC milling machine.
##Molten aluminium alloy added to die casting machine.
##Molten aluminium forced into die by piston.
##Water cooling of casting.
##Split dies open and ejector pins eject the cast part.
##Finished part is 'fettled' (the rough edges are sanded/tidied) to remove flashing where the two halves of the mould came together.
##If required, the part can then be painted (e.g. by spraying or a dip-coating process)
[[File:die_casting.png|500px|thumb|center]]

===sheet metal forming methods using equipment such as punches, rollers, shears and stamping machines===
#Punching is a forming process that uses a punch press to force a tool, called a punch, through the workpiece to create a hole via shearing. Punching is applicable to a wide variety of materials that come in sheet form, including sheet metal, paper, vulcanized fibre and some forms of plastic sheet. The punch often passes through the work into a die. A scrap slug from the hole is deposited into the die in the process. Depending on the material being punched this slug may be recycled and reused or discarded.

[[File:punching.jpeg|500px|thumb|center]]

#Sheet metal rolling.
<center><youtube>1EGnHsYoKH0</youtube></center>

#Shearing, also known as die cutting, is a process which cuts stock without the formation of chips or the use of burning or melting. Strictly speaking, if the cutting blades are straight the process is called shearing; if the cutting blades are curved then they are shearing-type operations. The most commonly sheared materials are in the form of sheet metal or plates, however rods can also be sheared.

[[File:shear.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

#Stamping (also known as pressing) is the process of placing flat sheet metal in either blank or coil form into a stamping press where a tool and die surface forms the metal into a net shape. Stamping includes a variety of sheet-metal forming manufacturing processes, such as punching using a machine press or stamping press, blanking, embossing, bending, flanging, and coining.

[[File:stamping.gif|500px|thumb|center]]

==7.3b Demonstrate an understanding of the industrial methods used for assembling electronic products, such as:==
===surface mount technology (SMT)===
#PCB assembly using solder stencils, pick-and-place machines and reflow soldering ovens.
#Watch the video below, this is a homemade machine, but it shows clearly the process of picking and placing surface mount (SMT) compinents to a PCB.

<center><youtube>CRSLbo_8nTQ</youtube></center>

#Below is a video explaining what reflow soldering is. Below that video is one explaining how the relow soldering oven work. It is selling a product, if you skip to 1:20, you will see how it works.
<center><youtube>eOUf59iut3s</youtube></center>
<center><youtube>Zw53kxy7yL0</youtube></center>

===CNC manufacturing such as laser/plasma cutting, milling, turning and routing===
#Watch the videos below to see the above CNC machines in action.
#CNC plasma cutting (the same as laser cutting)

<center><youtube>sKLdrHo2RWs</youtube></center>

#CNC milling machine.

'''Please note:''' the milling turns to CNC turning at 7:35 in the video below.

<center><youtube>7iKmTnZvA34</youtube></center>

#CNC turning machine.

<center><youtube>MwgobIVj4fU</youtube></center>

#CNC routing machine.

<center><youtube>txCMvRF4Bm8</youtube></center>

==7.3c Demonstrate an understanding of the benefits and flexibility of using computer-controlled machinery.==
===Automated material handling systems===
#Automated Materials Handling. Automated materials handling (AMH) refers to any automation that reduces or eliminates the need for humans to check-in, check-out, sort material, or to move totes and bins containing library material.
#Robot arms to stack, assemble, join and paint parts.
##Click [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v%3DgUWCljX7oa0 here] to watch a video of a robot being used to paint a car.
##Click [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v%3DLVtBjFUfFLE here] to watch a video of a robotic assembly line.

==7.3d Understand the necessity for manufacturers to optimise the use of materials and production processes.==
===Economical cutting and costing===

===Working to a budget through efficient manufacture===

==7.4a The methods used for manufacturing at different scales of production, including:==
===one-off, bespoke production===
#Job production, sometimes called jobbing or *one-off* production, involves producing custom work, such as a one-off product for a specific customer or a small batch of work in quantities usually less than those of mass-market products.

===Batch production===
#Batch production is a technique used in manufacturing, in which the object in question is created stage by stage over a series of workstations, and different batches of products are made.

===Mass production===
#Mass production is the manufacture of large quantities of standardized products, frequently utilizing assembly line technology. Mass production refers to the process of creating large numbers of similar products efficiently.

==Cell Manufacturing==
#Cell production is a manufacturing method where work is organised into small teams (“cells”). Each cell responsible for completing a whole unit of work or a significant part of it.
#The workers in the cell carry out a range of tasks and are often multi-skilled. Workers are multi-skilled and can rotate tasks within the cell.
#Examples: Electronics assembly, Automotive sub-assembly, power tool manufacture.
#Advantages:
##Improved communication within the cell as team members work closely together.
##Greater worker motivation due to team ownership, responsibility, and variety of tasks.
##Higher flexibility, as cells can be quickly reconfigured for different products.
##Better quality as teams monitor their own work and spot defects earlier.
#Disadvantages:
##Initial set-up cost can be high (reorganising layout, training staff).
##Not suitable for very high-volume mass production, where continuous flow lines are more efficient.
##If one cell stops, it can affect the whole production flow.
##Requires multi-skilled workers, which may require training and higher wages.

===lean manufacturing and just-in-time (JIT) methods===
#Lean manufacturing or lean production, often simply "lean", is a systematic method for waste minimization ("Muda") within a manufacturing system without sacrificing productivity. Lean also takes into account waste created through overburden ("Muri") and waste created through unevenness in work loads ("Mura"). Working from the perspective of the client who consumes a product or service, "value" is any action or process that a customer would be willing to pay for.
#Just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing, also known as just in time production is a methodology aimed at reducing flow times within production system as well as response times from suppliers and to customers. Its origin and development was in Japan, largely in the 1960s and 1970s and particularly at Toyota.
##Involves holding minimal stock within a factory, having production planned so that raw material arrives ‘just in time’ to be put onto the shop floor.
##Avoids carrying large amounts of stock or finished product that needs looking after.
##Once made, products are shipped as quickly as possible.
##This relies on meticulous organisation - any delays to delivery will hit productivity quickly and so are avoided.

===Fully automated manufacture===
#Lights out (manufacturing) Lights out or lights-out manufacturing is a manufacturing methodology (or philosophy), rather than a specific process. Factories that run lights out are fully automated and require no human presence on-site.
#Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lights_out_(manufacturing) here] to read more about 'lights out' manufacturing.

==7.4b Understanding how ICT and digital technologies are changing modern manufacturing.==
===Customised manufacture systems===
#In the custom manufacturing system, each item is produced by a single craftsperson, who works solely by hand or with the help of a machine. ... As a result, custom-manufactured products are of the highest quality but are also the most expensive products in the market.

===Rapid prototyping===
#Rapid prototyping is a group of techniques used to quickly fabricate a scale model of a physical part or assembly using three-dimensional computer aided design (CAD) data. Construction of the part or assembly is usually done using 3D printing or "additive layer manufacturing" technology.

===Additive and digital manufacture methods===
#Additive Manufacturing refers to a process by which digital 3D design data is used to build up a component in layers by depositing material. The term "3D printing" is increasingly used as a synonym for Additive Manufacturing. However, the latter is more accurate in that it describes a professional production technique which is clearly distinguished from conventional methods of material removal. Instead of milling a workpiece from solid block, for example, Additive Manufacturing builds up components layer by layer using materials which are available in fine powder form. A range of different metals, plastics and composite materials may be used.

===Stock control, monitoring logistics in industry===
#Stock control, monitoring logistics is the fact or process of ensuring that appropriate amounts of stock are maintained by a business, so as to be able to meet customer demand without delay while keeping the costs associated with holding stock to a minimum.

==7.5a Understanding the process that needs to be undertaken to ensure products meet legal requirements and are high quality.==
#Total Quality management (TQM) is the continual process of detecting and reducing or eliminating errors in manufacturing, streamlining supply chain management, improving quality and customer experience.
#In a TQM business model, all areas of a business and its suppliers use agreed specifications and quality control methods, and quality is the responsibility of everyone. This happens where a company has a desire to gain customer satisfaction, aiming to guarantee the manufacture of a quality product, every time.
#TQM seeks to improve both quality of product and efficiency in manufacture.
#This is implemented through three areas:

===Management===
#Reviewing and monitoring every stage of the process.
#ISO9000 certification process to appreciate quality in house and from suppliers.
#BS 7850 as a standard for effective management of human resources and materials.
#Poke-Yokes as a simple checking strategy to eliminate errors arising for relative labour-intensive tasks.
#Implementation of Kaizen as a method of continuous improvement as workers are best placed to suggest improvements to processes and feel empowered and wanted within their jobs.
#Employees encouraged to take pride in their work and are trained to perform their work optimally.

===Quality Assurance===
#Check for quality raw materials / components from suppliers.
#Checking every stage of the manufacturing process.
#Induction / ongoing training for staff to ensure they understand how to achieve quality.
#Checking against the specification to ensure customer requirements.

===Quality Control===
#Random Sampling of parts and components as they are being manufactured.
#Every employee is responsible for their quality standards.
#Tolerances in place to ensure upper and lower dimensional allowances.

==QA Vs QC==
#During the manufacturing process, QC and QA are vital to ensure a high-quality end product which is safe, and meets client expectation. In the areas such as aeronautical, automotive and medical industries, getting this right can have life or death implications.
#QC is like checking from time to time that your goldfish is still alive. With QA, you would also aim to make sure that the filter and pump work correctly, the water is the right temperature and is changed on schedule, and that everyone in the household knows when and how much to feed it.
#Quality Control is where a product is inspected or tested to ensure that it meets the requirements for the specific product. For instance, a car part may need to be made from aluminium, weight 54.5g and measure 3mm x 6mm. If out of 50 parts inspected, 49 match these requirements, but one weighs 55g and is 3mm x 6.5mm, that part would fail its quality control check. Quality Control does not ensure quality – it informs where it is missing.
#Quality Assurance seeks to look more closely at the process of making the product, seeks to find common areas where quality has the potential to slip and looks to address these so that manufactured parts fail less often. This can happen right through the design, development and manufacture stages.
#[http://www.iso9001consultant.com.au/QA.html Read more here]

==European and British standards==
#It comprises a set of questions and answers that summarizes the role of standards in the European Single Market. The information in this document has been prepared by BSI (British Standards Institution), which is appointed by the UK Government (HMG) to act as the UK National Standards Body (NSB).

[[Design_Engineering|Design Engineering homepage]]

Manufacturing processes and techniques

2025-12-14T17:56:20Z

Stsb11: /* lean manufacturing and just-in-time (JIT) methods */

==Materials and processes used to make iterative models==

==7.1a Understand that 3D iterative models can be made from a range of materials and components to create block models and working prototypes to communicate and test ideas, moving parts and structural integrity==

==7.1b Demonstrate an understanding of simple processes that can be used to model ideas using hand tools and digital tools such as rapid prototyping, or digital simulation packages.==
[[File:solidworks_example.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Solidworks is an example of 3D software used to model working prototypes. This software can be used to digitally simulate models. Other software packages that can be used are Circuit Wizard.
[[File:circuit_wizard_example.gif|500px|thumb|center]]
#Materials and processes used to make final prototypes

==7.2a Understand how to select and safely use of common workshop tools, equipment and machinery to manipulate materials by methods of:==
===wasting/subtraction processes such as cutting, drilling, turning, milling===
#Cutting is the separation of a physical object, into two or more portions, through the application of an acutely directed force.
#Chip forming - sawing, drilling, milling, turning etc.
#Shearing - punching, stamping, scissoring.
#Abrading - grinding, lapping, polishing; water-jet.
#Heat - flame cutting, plasma cutting, laser cutting.
#Electrochemical - etching, electrical discharge machining (EDM).
#Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool, often multi-point. The bit is pressed against the work-piece and rotated at rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute.
[[File:drilling_process.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Turning is a form of machining, a material removal process, which is used to create rotational parts by cutting away unwanted material. The turning process requires a turning machine or lathe, workpiece, fixture, and cutting tool.
<center><youtube>8EsAxOnzEms</youtube></center>
#Milling is the most common form of machining, a material removal process, which can create a variety of features on a part by cutting away the unwanted material. The milling process requires a milling machine, workpiece, fixture, and cutter.
<center><youtube>eJR-G-3Kvsk</youtube></center>
===addition processes such as soldering, brazing, welding, adhesives, fasteners===
#Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and then flowing a filler metal into the joint—the filler metal having a relatively low melting point. Soldering is used to form a permanent connection between electronic components.
[[File:soldering.jpeg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Brazing is a metal-joining process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point than the adjoining metal.
[[File:brazing.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#There are many different types of welding.
[[File:welding_processes.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Click on the links below to read more about the main types of welding:
##[http://www.technologystudent.com/equip_flsh/acet1.html Gas welding]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_welding Arc welding]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_metal_arc_welding MIG welding]
#Adhesives may be used interchangeably with glue, cement, mucilage, or paste, and is any substance applied to one surface, or both surfaces, of two separate items that binds them together and resists their separation.
##To read up on different types of glues/adhesives, click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/joints/stglu1.htm this] link to go to www.technologystudent.com to read more on this.
#A fastener is a hardware device that mechanically joins or affixes two or more objects together. In general, fasteners are used to create non-permanent joints; that is, joints that can be removed or dismantled without damaging the joining components.

[[File:fastners.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

===deforming and reforming processes such as bending, vacuum forming===
#There are many different ways to bend different types of materials. Line bending is a common way of bending plastics. Click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/joints/desk17.htm this] link to read more about line bending.
#If you want to bend pipes or tubes, click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/equip_flsh/pipe1.html this] link to read more about it.
#Vacuum forming is a simplified version of thermoforming, where a sheet of plastic is heated to a forming temperature, stretched onto a single-surface mold, and forced against the mould by a vacuum. This process can be used to form plastic into permanent objects such as turnpike signs and protective covers. Normally draft angles are present in the design of the mould (a recommended minimum of 3°) to ease removal of the formed plastic part from the mold.
[[File:vaccuum_forming.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
[[File:vaccuum_forming_machine.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
<center><youtube>BqV_jsxD0UA&t</youtube></center>

==7.2b Demonstrate an understanding of the role of computer-aided manufacture (CAM) and computer-aided engineering (CAE) to fabricate parts, such as:==
===additive manufacturing (3D printing) to fabricate a usable part===
#3D printing refers to processes in which material is joined or solidified under computer control to create a three-dimensional object, with material being added together (such as liquid molecules or powder grains being fused together). 3D printing is used in both rapid prototyping and additive manufacturing (AM). Objects can be of almost any shape or geometry and typically are produced using digital model data from a 3D model or another electronic data source such as an Additive Manufacturing File (AMF) file (usually in sequential layers). Stereolithography (STL) is one of the most common file types that is used for 3D printing. Thus, unlike material removed from a stock in the conventional machining process, 3D printing or AM builds a three-dimensional object from computer-aided design (CAD) model or AMF file, usually by successively adding material layer by layer.
<center><youtube>Gwro2HzxMgw&t</youtube></center>
===subtractive CNC manufacturing such as laser/plasma cutting, milling, turning and routing===
#To read more about the world of CNC machining, click on the links below.
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_cutting Laser cutting]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_cutting Plasma cutting]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milling_(machining) CNC milling]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turning CNC turning]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNC_router CNC router]

==7.2c Demonstrate an understanding of measuring instruments and techniques used to ensure that products are manufactured accurately or within tolerances as appropriate.==
#There are many instruments that can be used to measure sizes of products. The 2 most common ones you will use are the:
##Steel rule
[[File:steel_rule.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

##Vernier Caliper
[[File:vernier.png|500px|thumb|center]]
#To read more about the vernier caliper, click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/equip1/vernier3.htm this] link to go to www.technologystudent.com to read how to use the measuring instrument.
#Other tools are available to measure products, such as a 'dial test indicator' or a 'micrometer'.

==7.2d Understand how the available forms, costs and working properties of materials contribute to the decisions about suitability of materials when developing and manufacturing their own products.==
#In every decision about manufacturing a product, the cost of the overall product is very important to a manufacturer as this will determine profits. When deciding on the materials to be used in a product, there are many decisions that will need to be made. First you would need to find as many suitable materials as possible, considering as many possibilities as you can, such as, corrosion resistance or longevity.
#Once you have selected suitable materials for your product, you will then need to consider cost, practicalities, such as manufacturing processes. This will need to be completed before deciding on the end material.
#Materials and processes used to make commercial products

==7.3a Demonstrate an understanding of the industrial processes and machinery used for manufacturing component parts in various materials, including:==
#polymer moulding methods, such as injection moulding, blow moulding, compression moulding and thermoforming.
<center><youtube>b1U9W4iNDiQ</youtube></center>
#Injection moulding is a manufacturing process for producing parts by injecting molten material into a mould. Injection moulding can be performed with a host of materials mainly including metals, (for which the process is called die-casting), glasses, elastomers, confections, and most commonly thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers. Material for the part is fed into a heated barrel, mixed (Using a helical shaped screw), and injected (Forced) into a mould cavity, where it cools and hardens to the configuration of the cavity. After a product is designed, usually by an industrial designer or an engineer, moulds are made by a mould-maker (or toolmaker) from metal, usually either steel or aluminium, and precision-machined to form the features of the desired part. Injection moulding is widely used for manufacturing a variety of parts, from the smallest components to entire body panels of cars. Advances in 3D printing technology, using photopolymers which do not melt during the injection moulding of some lower temperature thermoplastics, can be used for some simple injection moulds.
[[File:injection_moulding.png|500px|thumb|center]]

#Blow molding is a manufacturing process by which hollow plastic parts are formed: It is also used for forming glass bottles. In general, there are three main types of blow molding: extrusion blow molding, injection blow molding, and injection stretch blow molding. The blow molding process begins with melting down the plastic and forming it into a parison or in the case of injection and injection stretch blow moulding (ISB) a preform. The parison is a tube-like piece of plastic with a hole in one end through which compressed air can pass.

[[File:blow_molding.png|500px|thumb|center]]
<center><youtube>NE4c1gwzPb4</youtube></center>
#Extrusion moulding is a manufacturing process used to make pipes, hoses, drinking straws, curtain tracks, rods. Plastic granules melt into a liquid which is forced through a die, forming a long 'tube like' shape. The shape of the die determines the shape of the tube. The extrusion is then cooled and forms a solid shape. The tube may be printed upon, and cut at equal intervals. The pieces may be rolled for storage or packed together. Shapes that can result from extrusion include T-sections, U-sections, square sections, I-sections, L-sections and circular sections. Extrusion is similar to injection moulding except that a long continuous shape is produced. Learn more [https://www.technologystudent.com/equip1/plasextru1.html here].

#Compression Molding is a method of molding in which the moulding material, generally preheated, is first placed in an open, heated mould cavity. The mold is closed with a top force or plug member, pressure is applied to force the material into contact with all mold areas, while heat and pressure are maintained until the molding material has cured. The process employs thermosetting resins in a partially cured stage, either in the form of granules, putty-like masses, or preforms.

[[File:compression_molding.png|500px|thumb|center]]

#Thermoforming is a manufacturing process where a plastic sheet is heated to a pliable forming temperature, formed to a specific shape in a mold, and trimmed to create a usable product. The sheet, or "film" when referring to thinner gauges and certain material types, is heated in an oven to a high-enough temperature that permits it to be stretched into or onto a mold and cooled to a finished shape. Its simplified version is vacuum forming.

[[File:Thermoforming.gif|500px|thumb|center]]

===metal casting methods such as sand casting and die casting===
#Sand casting, also known as sand molded casting, is a metal casting process characterized by using sand as the mold material. The term "sand casting" can also refer to an object produced via the sand casting process. Sand castings are produced in specialized factories called foundries. Over 70% of all metal castings are produced via sand casting process.

[[File:sand_casting.png|500px|thumb|center]]

#Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterised by forcing molten metal under high pressure into a mould cavity. The mould cavity is created using two hardened tool steel dies which have been machined into shape and work similarly to an injection mould during the process. Most die castings are made from non-ferrous metals, specifically zinc, copper, aluminium, magnesium, lead, pewter and tin-based alloys. Depending on the type of metal being cast, a hot- or cold-chamber machine is used. The steps are...
##Moulds machined from HSS using a CNC milling machine.
##Molten aluminium alloy added to die casting machine.
##Molten aluminium forced into die by piston.
##Water cooling of casting.
##Split dies open and ejector pins eject the cast part.
##Finished part is 'fettled' (the rough edges are sanded/tidied) to remove flashing where the two halves of the mould came together.
##If required, the part can then be painted (e.g. by spraying or a dip-coating process)
[[File:die_casting.png|500px|thumb|center]]

===sheet metal forming methods using equipment such as punches, rollers, shears and stamping machines===
#Punching is a forming process that uses a punch press to force a tool, called a punch, through the workpiece to create a hole via shearing. Punching is applicable to a wide variety of materials that come in sheet form, including sheet metal, paper, vulcanized fibre and some forms of plastic sheet. The punch often passes through the work into a die. A scrap slug from the hole is deposited into the die in the process. Depending on the material being punched this slug may be recycled and reused or discarded.

[[File:punching.jpeg|500px|thumb|center]]

#Sheet metal rolling.
<center><youtube>1EGnHsYoKH0</youtube></center>

#Shearing, also known as die cutting, is a process which cuts stock without the formation of chips or the use of burning or melting. Strictly speaking, if the cutting blades are straight the process is called shearing; if the cutting blades are curved then they are shearing-type operations. The most commonly sheared materials are in the form of sheet metal or plates, however rods can also be sheared.

[[File:shear.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

#Stamping (also known as pressing) is the process of placing flat sheet metal in either blank or coil form into a stamping press where a tool and die surface forms the metal into a net shape. Stamping includes a variety of sheet-metal forming manufacturing processes, such as punching using a machine press or stamping press, blanking, embossing, bending, flanging, and coining.

[[File:stamping.gif|500px|thumb|center]]

==7.3b Demonstrate an understanding of the industrial methods used for assembling electronic products, such as:==
===surface mount technology (SMT)===
#PCB assembly using solder stencils, pick-and-place machines and reflow soldering ovens.
#Watch the video below, this is a homemade machine, but it shows clearly the process of picking and placing surface mount (SMT) compinents to a PCB.

<center><youtube>CRSLbo_8nTQ</youtube></center>

#Below is a video explaining what reflow soldering is. Below that video is one explaining how the relow soldering oven work. It is selling a product, if you skip to 1:20, you will see how it works.
<center><youtube>eOUf59iut3s</youtube></center>
<center><youtube>Zw53kxy7yL0</youtube></center>

===CNC manufacturing such as laser/plasma cutting, milling, turning and routing===
#Watch the videos below to see the above CNC machines in action.
#CNC plasma cutting (the same as laser cutting)

<center><youtube>sKLdrHo2RWs</youtube></center>

#CNC milling machine.

'''Please note:''' the milling turns to CNC turning at 7:35 in the video below.

<center><youtube>7iKmTnZvA34</youtube></center>

#CNC turning machine.

<center><youtube>MwgobIVj4fU</youtube></center>

#CNC routing machine.

<center><youtube>txCMvRF4Bm8</youtube></center>

==7.3c Demonstrate an understanding of the benefits and flexibility of using computer-controlled machinery.==
===Automated material handling systems===
#Automated Materials Handling. Automated materials handling (AMH) refers to any automation that reduces or eliminates the need for humans to check-in, check-out, sort material, or to move totes and bins containing library material.
#Robot arms to stack, assemble, join and paint parts.
##Click [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v%3DgUWCljX7oa0 here] to watch a video of a robot being used to paint a car.
##Click [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v%3DLVtBjFUfFLE here] to watch a video of a robotic assembly line.

==7.3d Understand the necessity for manufacturers to optimise the use of materials and production processes.==
===Economical cutting and costing===

===Working to a budget through efficient manufacture===

==7.4a The methods used for manufacturing at different scales of production, including:==
===one-off, bespoke production===
#Job production, sometimes called jobbing or *one-off* production, involves producing custom work, such as a one-off product for a specific customer or a small batch of work in quantities usually less than those of mass-market products.

===Batch production===
#Batch production is a technique used in manufacturing, in which the object in question is created stage by stage over a series of workstations, and different batches of products are made.

===Mass production===
#Mass production is the manufacture of large quantities of standardized products, frequently utilizing assembly line technology. Mass production refers to the process of creating large numbers of similar products efficiently.

===lean manufacturing and just-in-time (JIT) methods===
#Lean manufacturing or lean production, often simply "lean", is a systematic method for waste minimization ("Muda") within a manufacturing system without sacrificing productivity. Lean also takes into account waste created through overburden ("Muri") and waste created through unevenness in work loads ("Mura"). Working from the perspective of the client who consumes a product or service, "value" is any action or process that a customer would be willing to pay for.
#Just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing, also known as just in time production is a methodology aimed at reducing flow times within production system as well as response times from suppliers and to customers. Its origin and development was in Japan, largely in the 1960s and 1970s and particularly at Toyota.
##Involves holding minimal stock within a factory, having production planned so that raw material arrives ‘just in time’ to be put onto the shop floor.
##Avoids carrying large amounts of stock or finished product that needs looking after.
##Once made, products are shipped as quickly as possible.
##This relies on meticulous organisation - any delays to delivery will hit productivity quickly and so are avoided.

===Fully automated manufacture===
#Lights out (manufacturing) Lights out or lights-out manufacturing is a manufacturing methodology (or philosophy), rather than a specific process. Factories that run lights out are fully automated and require no human presence on-site.
#Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lights_out_(manufacturing) here] to read more about 'lights out' manufacturing.

==7.4b Understanding how ICT and digital technologies are changing modern manufacturing.==
===Customised manufacture systems===
#In the custom manufacturing system, each item is produced by a single craftsperson, who works solely by hand or with the help of a machine. ... As a result, custom-manufactured products are of the highest quality but are also the most expensive products in the market.

===Rapid prototyping===
#Rapid prototyping is a group of techniques used to quickly fabricate a scale model of a physical part or assembly using three-dimensional computer aided design (CAD) data. Construction of the part or assembly is usually done using 3D printing or "additive layer manufacturing" technology.

===Additive and digital manufacture methods===
#Additive Manufacturing refers to a process by which digital 3D design data is used to build up a component in layers by depositing material. The term "3D printing" is increasingly used as a synonym for Additive Manufacturing. However, the latter is more accurate in that it describes a professional production technique which is clearly distinguished from conventional methods of material removal. Instead of milling a workpiece from solid block, for example, Additive Manufacturing builds up components layer by layer using materials which are available in fine powder form. A range of different metals, plastics and composite materials may be used.

===Stock control, monitoring logistics in industry===
#Stock control, monitoring logistics is the fact or process of ensuring that appropriate amounts of stock are maintained by a business, so as to be able to meet customer demand without delay while keeping the costs associated with holding stock to a minimum.

==7.5a Understanding the process that needs to be undertaken to ensure products meet legal requirements and are high quality.==
#Total Quality management (TQM) is the continual process of detecting and reducing or eliminating errors in manufacturing, streamlining supply chain management, improving quality and customer experience.
#In a TQM business model, all areas of a business and its suppliers use agreed specifications and quality control methods, and quality is the responsibility of everyone. This happens where a company has a desire to gain customer satisfaction, aiming to guarantee the manufacture of a quality product, every time.
#TQM seeks to improve both quality of product and efficiency in manufacture.
#This is implemented through three areas:

===Management===
#Reviewing and monitoring every stage of the process.
#ISO9000 certification process to appreciate quality in house and from suppliers.
#BS 7850 as a standard for effective management of human resources and materials.
#Poke-Yokes as a simple checking strategy to eliminate errors arising for relative labour-intensive tasks.
#Implementation of Kaizen as a method of continuous improvement as workers are best placed to suggest improvements to processes and feel empowered and wanted within their jobs.
#Employees encouraged to take pride in their work and are trained to perform their work optimally.

===Quality Assurance===
#Check for quality raw materials / components from suppliers.
#Checking every stage of the manufacturing process.
#Induction / ongoing training for staff to ensure they understand how to achieve quality.
#Checking against the specification to ensure customer requirements.

===Quality Control===
#Random Sampling of parts and components as they are being manufactured.
#Every employee is responsible for their quality standards.
#Tolerances in place to ensure upper and lower dimensional allowances.

==QA Vs QC==
#During the manufacturing process, QC and QA are vital to ensure a high-quality end product which is safe, and meets client expectation. In the areas such as aeronautical, automotive and medical industries, getting this right can have life or death implications.
#QC is like checking from time to time that your goldfish is still alive. With QA, you would also aim to make sure that the filter and pump work correctly, the water is the right temperature and is changed on schedule, and that everyone in the household knows when and how much to feed it.
#Quality Control is where a product is inspected or tested to ensure that it meets the requirements for the specific product. For instance, a car part may need to be made from aluminium, weight 54.5g and measure 3mm x 6mm. If out of 50 parts inspected, 49 match these requirements, but one weighs 55g and is 3mm x 6.5mm, that part would fail its quality control check. Quality Control does not ensure quality – it informs where it is missing.
#Quality Assurance seeks to look more closely at the process of making the product, seeks to find common areas where quality has the potential to slip and looks to address these so that manufactured parts fail less often. This can happen right through the design, development and manufacture stages.
#[http://www.iso9001consultant.com.au/QA.html Read more here]

==European and British standards==
#It comprises a set of questions and answers that summarizes the role of standards in the European Single Market. The information in this document has been prepared by BSI (British Standards Institution), which is appointed by the UK Government (HMG) to act as the UK National Standards Body (NSB).

[[Design_Engineering|Design Engineering homepage]]

Design thinking and communication

2025-11-07T09:21:18Z

Stsb11: /* Collaboration - EXAMPLES */

==Uses of 2D and 3D sketching and digital tools==
#Engineering drawing and artistic types of drawing, and either may be called simply "drawing" when the context is implicit. Engineering drawing shares some traits with artistic drawing in that both create pictures. But whereas the purpose of artistic drawing is to convey emotion or artistic sensitivity in some way (subjective impressions), the purpose of engineering drawing is to convey information (objective facts).

==4.1a Demonstrate an understanding of how to use annotated sketching and digital tools to graphically communicate ideas and sketch modelling to explore possible improvements, in terms of physical requirements, such as:==
[[File:sample_idea1.png|500px|thumb|center]]
[[File:sample_idea2.png|500px|thumb|center]]
[[File:sample_idea3.png|500px|thumb|center]]
#Function, usability, construction, movement, stability, composition, strength.
#When developing ideas you will need to discuss the following:
##The functionality, how does the project work, how does it solve the users needs and wants?
##Usability, how easy is the product to use, if the user group finds it difficult to operate, then it will need to be re-designed.
##Construction, how is the product put together, is it glued, welded, screwed together for example?
##Movement, how will any movement be achieved? Will it use any mechanisms for example?
##Stability, will it be able to repeat the tasks without any hinderance or issues?
##Composition, what materials are used to make the product and are they suitable?
##Strength, are the materials you have used strong enough to withstand any forces applied?
#Aesthetic qualities
##As a consumer, most of us are very interested in the way the product looks, have you taken into account what the users would like to see in the product and what they would like it to look like?
#Manufacturing processes. Have you considered the options available to manufacture the parts as well as the entire product, for example:
##One-off manufacturing,
##Injection moulding,
##JIT manufacture.
##These are discussed further in principle 7.
#Suitability of materials and components. Have you discussed the suitability of all the components and materials you have chosen for your product?
##For example, have you decided to use Gold for all the part, this would not be suitable due to its' high costs, or Have you used high power transistors when you only need a low power one?

==4.1b Demonstrate an understanding of methods used to represent systems and components to inform third parties, such as:==
===Constructional diagrams/working drawings===
#Constructional diagrams/working drawings are produced as engineering drawings. These are more than merely the drawing of pictures, it is also a graphical language that communicates ideas and information from one mind to another.
[[File:instructional_diagram.gif|500px|center]]

===Digital visualisations===
#Digital visualisations are any techniques for creating images, diagrams, or animations to communicate a message. Visualization through visual imagery has been an effective way to communicate both abstract and concrete ideas since the dawn of humanity. Examples from history include cave paintings, Egyptian hieroglyphs, Greek geometry, and Leonardo da Vinci's revolutionary methods of technical drawing for engineering and scientific purposes.
[[File:digital_visualisation.jpg|600px|thumb|center]]

===Circuit and system diagrams===
#A circuit diagram (electrical diagram, elementary diagram, electronic schematic) is a graphical representation of an electrical circuit.
[[File:circuit_diag_example.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

===System Diagrams===
#These are models used to visually express the dynamic forces acting upon the components of a process and the interactions between those forces. System Diagrams are more than process flow charts.
[[File:sample_systems_diag.gif|500px|center]]

===Flowcharts with associated symbols===
[[File:flow_chart_symbols.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
[[File:flowchart_sample.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

===prototypes and models===
#All of your products will have been prototype modelled in SolidWorks.
[[File:prototype_model.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Industry professionals use digital design tools to support and communicate the exploration, innovation and development of design ideas?
#Digital tools enable designers to visualise, develop ideas and communicate with their clients more easily, sharing ideas and information using cloud platforms, online forums and e-mail.
#This is turn is making design a more collaborative process as it enables designers, engineers, manufacturers and stakeholders to have an easy input into the design process.

==4.2a An understanding of how designers develop products using digital tools and online collaboration, including:==
#Discussing and exchanging ideas with specialists.
#Developing designs concurrently with other designers.
#Explaining and communicating their design decisions to stakeholders.

==4.2b An understanding of how digital design software is used during design development, including:==
===Visual presentation, rendering and photo-quality imaging===
#Visual presentations are:
##An efficient and quick way of telling the story of manufacture.
##A good way to allow audiences to absorb the information without the product being shown.
##An effective visualisation, graphic or image based communication method to display you product.

===Product simulation and systems simulation===
#Simulation is the imitation of the operation of a real-world process or system over time. The act of simulating something first requires that a model be developed; this model represents the key characteristics, behaviors and functions of the selected physical or abstract system or process. The model represents the system itself, whereas the simulation represents the operation of the system over time.

===Scientific analysis of real-world physical factors===
#These can be used to determine whether a product will break or work the way it was intended.
#The scientific analysis method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry is commonly based on empirical or measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.
#Design engineers use different approaches to design thinking to support the development of design ideas?

==4.3a. Awareness of different strategies, techniques and approaches to explore, create and evaluate design ideas, including:==
===Iterative designing===
#Iterative design is a design methodology based on a cyclic process of prototyping, testing, analyzing, and refining a product or process. Based on the results of testing the most recent iteration of a design, changes and refinements are made. This process is intended to ultimately improve the quality and functionality of a design. In iterative design, interaction with the designed system is used as a form of research for informing and evolving a project, as successive versions, or iterations of a design are implemented. E.g. When developing a new laundry machine, engineers might undertake...
##Rigorous, recurring and progressive testing, modelling and development, with user feedback’ of prototype solutions helps to achieve the fit for purpose outcome.
##The design would be modelled in a development area, using the actual valve and cylinder components to test that the air pressures and forces generated are sufficient to overcome friction and operate the water inlet valve. This will identify any required modifications to improve the design solution.
##User testing and location testing can be used at throughout the process to obtain feedback that identifies where the user foresees issues with the system. This will lead into consideration of modifications in line with stakeholder requirements.
##CAD could be used to model the entire system before manufacture of parts or assembly of system components. This allows clearances to be checked and distances to be finalised before final fitting on site.
##The modelled system can be soak tested, i.e. continually cycled for several thousand operations to generate a rough idea of system life expectancy. The outcomes from this testing can be analysed to identify areas of improvement that need to be made in future iterations of the product development.
##The software for the controller can be developed, debugged and tested with the user before installing into the laundry system. User feedback can be very useful for further developing the solution.

===User-centred design===
#User-centered design (UCD) or user-driven development (UDD) is a framework of processes (not restricted to interfaces or technologies) in which usability goals, user characteristics, environment, tasks and workflow of a product, service or process are given extensive attention at each stage of the design process.
#User-centered design can be characterized as a multi-stage problem-solving process that not only requires designers to analyze and envision the way users are likely to consume a product, but also to validate their assumptions with regard to the user behavior in real world tests.
#These tests are conducted with/without actual users during each stage of the process from requirements, pre-production models and post production, completing a circle of proof back to and ensuring that "development proceeds with the user as the center of focus." Such testing is necessary as it is often very difficult for the designers of a product to understand intuitively what a first-time user of their design experiences, and what each user's learning curve may look like.

===Circular economy===
#A circular economy is a regenerative system in which resource input and waste, emission, and energy leakage are minimised by slowing, closing, and narrowing material and energy loops. This can be achieved through long-lasting design, maintenance, repair, reuse, remanufacturing, refurbishing, and recycling. This is in contrast to a linear economy which is a 'take, make, dispose' model of production.

===Systems thinking===
#Critical systems thinking is a systems thinking framework that wants to bring unity to the diversity of different systems approaches and advises managers how best to use them.
#Critical Systems Thinking "aims to combine systems thinking and participatory methods to address the challenges of problems characterised by large scale, complexity, uncertainty, impermanence, and imperfection. It allows nonlinear relationships, feedback loops, hierarchies, emergent properties and so on to be taken into account and Critical Systems Thinking has particularly problematised the issue of boundaries and their consequences for inclusion, exclusion and marginalisation".

==4.3b. The importance of collaboration to gain specialist knowledge from across subject areas when delivering solutions in the design and manufacturing industries==
#There are many good reasons to collaborate with others with specialist knowledge to develop a product, here are some of the positives:
##Enable quick and effective decision-making
##Facilitate research and access to relevant information and resources
##Reuse ideas, experiences and expertise
##Avoid redundant efforts
##Avoid making the same mistake several times
##Take advantage of existing experiences and expertise
##Communicate widely and quickly important information
##Promote and rapidly deploy reproducible standards, procedures and processes
##Provide methods, tools, templates, techniques and examples
##Ensure that scarce expertise is widely disseminated
##Show clients how knowledge can be used and the benefits that can be gained
##Accelerate delivery times for customers
##Allow the organization to take advantage of its size
##Make the organization the champion of reusing experience to solve its problems
##Stimulate innovation and development
#To read more about these, click on [https://www.elium.com/blog/benefits-of-knowledge-sharing this] link.
===Collaboration - EXAMPLES===
#During the design phase of a product
##Diverse Expertise: Complex systems often require expertise from multiple disciplines such as mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, software engineering, and more. Collaboration allows engineers with different specialties to contribute their unique skills and knowledge to address various aspects of system design, ensuring a comprehensive and well-rounded approach.
##Holistic Problem-solving: Complex systems typically involve interconnected components and subsystems, each with its own requirements and constraints. Collaboration enables engineers to take a holistic approach to problem-solving, considering the interactions and dependencies between different parts of the system and finding solutions that optimize overall performance and reliability.
##Innovation and Creativity: Collaboration fosters an environment where ideas can be shared, challenged, and refined collectively. By collaborating with peers, engineers can leverage each other's creativity and insights to explore new concepts, innovative design approaches, and novel solutions to complex engineering problems, leading to breakthrough innovations and advancements in technology.
##Adaptability and Flexibility: An acknowledgement that complex systems often evolve over time due to changing requirements, technological advancements, or external factors. Collaboration enables engineering teams to adapt and respond to these changes more effectively by fostering a culture of flexibility, open communication, and continuous learning, allowing the system to remain relevant and resilient in the face of evolving challenges.
##User Need Assessment: The collaboration between the designer and engineer begins during the user need assessment. With both parties consulting with professionals in other fields (e.g. medical, aeronautical), users and other stakeholders, they are able to identify key requirements prior to the design process.
##Concept Development and Technical Feasibility: Designers are likely to generate initial concepts and prototypes based on the information gathered in the User Needs Assessment. Concurrently, engineers would have assessed the technical feasibility of the proposed designs considering factors such as material selection, manufacturing processes and regulatory requirements. They will also be needed to ensure that the product meets the necessary performance standards while remaining practical for it’s intended purpose.
#Prototyping and testing
##Testing: During this phase the designers and engineers will create the prototype together, testing each element and ensuring that the ergonomics and ease of use are upmost. Feedback from professionals in other fields (e.g. scientists, medical, military) with give informed decisions for the engineers and designers to produce new iterations.
##Risk Mitigation: Complex systems carry an inherent risk such as technical failure, safety hazards and costs. Collaboration will reduce the risk by identifying issues early.
##Quality Assurance: An understanding that collaboration facilitates peer review and feedback, allowing engineers to validate their designs, identify potential flaws or deficiencies, and make necessary improvements before finalising the system. This iterative process of review and refinement helps ensure that the system meets quality standards, regulatory requirements, and customer expectations.
#Manufacturing and production
##Manufacturing Methods: Once a design has been finalised, engineers will work closely with both designing and the manufacturing engineers to oversee the production process. They would ensure that the manufacturing methods and quality control measures were in place to produce the product.
##Efficiency and Productivity: Through collaboration engineers are able to play to others strengths and resources more effectively. By dividing individual tasks and sharing workload engineers would be able to decrease timelines and reduce costs.
##Regulatory Compliance: Throughout the development process, designers and engineers would have collaborated to ensure that the new product complies with the relevant standards and certifications.

==4.3c. Understand how design teams use different approaches to project management when faced with large projects==
===Critical path analysis===
#Critical Path Analysis (CPA), also known as the Critical Path Method (CPM), is a project management technique that identifies the most crucial tasks within a project and determines the shortest possible completion time. It helps project managers allocate resources, monitor progress, and ensure timely completion by focusing on the longest sequence of dependent activities, known as the critical path.
[[File:critical_path.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Here's a more detailed explanation:
##Identifying Critical Tasks: CPA involves listing all project activities, identifying dependencies between them, and estimating the duration of each task.
##Creating a Network Diagram: These activities are then visually represented in a network diagram, showing the sequence and dependencies.
##Determining the Critical Path: The longest sequence of dependent activities, where any delay would directly impact the project completion date, is identified as the critical path.
##Analysing Float: CPA also helps identify activities with "float" or slack, meaning they can be delayed without affecting the project timeline.
##Resource Allocation and Monitoring: Understanding the critical path allows for efficient resource allocation and monitoring of critical tasks, ensuring the project stays on track.
#Benefits of Critical Path Analysis:
##Determines Minimum Project Duration: It helps establish a realistic deadline and target completion time.
##Prioritizes Tasks: It highlights the most important tasks that need constant monitoring and focus.
##Facilitates Resource Allocation: It helps allocate resources effectively by identifying critical and non-critical activities.
##Improves Project Control: It provides a clear framework for managing project dependencies and potential risks.
##Enhances Communication: The network diagram provides a visual representation of the project schedule and dependencies, facilitating communication among team members.

===Scrum===
#Scrum is an Agile project management framework that enables teams to work collaboratively and efficiently to deliver products iteratively and incrementally. It focuses on iterative development, continuous feedback, and adaptive planning, allowing teams to respond effectively to changes and uncertainties.
[[File:scrum_methodology.png|500px|thumb|center]]

#Key aspects of Scrum include:
##Iterative and Incremental Development: Work is broken down into small, time-boxed iterations called sprints, typically lasting two to four weeks.
##Daily Scrum (Stand-up): Short, daily meetings where the team discusses progress, challenges, and plans for the day.
##Sprint Planning: The team selects tasks from the product backlog for the upcoming sprint and determines how they will be completed.
##Sprint Review: At the end of each sprint, the team demonstrates the completed work to stakeholders and gathers feedback.
##Sprint Retrospective: The team reflects on the past sprint, identifies areas for improvement, and plans for the next sprint.
##Roles: Scrum involves key roles like the Product Owner (responsible for maximizing product value), Scrum Master (facilitator for the team), and the Development Team (responsible for delivering the product).
##Artifacts: Scrum uses artifacts like the Product Backlog (a prioritized list of features), Sprint Backlog (a list of tasks for the current sprint), and the Increment (the potentially shippable product delivered at the end of each sprint).
#Scrum's flexibility and iterative approach make it well-suited for projects where requirements may evolve or where the project scope is not fully defined at the outset. It promotes continuous improvement and helps teams deliver value to stakeholders throughout the project lifecycle.

===Six Sigma===
#Six Sigma is a data-driven methodology for improving business processes by reducing defects and waste. It's particularly effective in project management by focusing on improving quality, efficiency, and customer satisfaction through process optimization and variation reduction. Six Sigma project managers leverage statistical tools, financial analysis, and project management principles to identify and address root causes of issues.
[[File:six_sigma.png|500px|thumb|center]]
#Key Aspects of Six Sigma in Project Management:
##DMAIC Framework: Six Sigma projects typically follow the DMAIC framework: Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and Control.
##Focus on Variation Reduction: Six Sigma aims to reduce variation within processes to minimize defects and improve consistency.
##Customer Focus: Six Sigma projects prioritize understanding and meeting customer needs.
##Data-Driven Approach: Six Sigma relies heavily on data analysis to identify problems and track improvements.
##Process Improvement: Six Sigma focuses on improving existing processes, rather than creating new ones.
##Lean Six Sigma: Combining Six Sigma with Lean principles can further optimize processes by eliminating waste and improving efficiency.
##Training and Certification: Six Sigma practitioners undergo training and often achieve certification in various levels, such as Yellow Belt, Green Belt, and Black Belt.
##Financial Benefits: Six Sigma projects often yield tangible financial benefits by reducing costs, improving quality, and increasing customer satisfaction.
##Complementary to Project Management: Six Sigma can be integrated with other project management methodologies, such as Agile or Waterfall, to enhance project success.
##Real-World Examples: Six Sigma has been successfully implemented in various industries, including manufacturing, healthcare, and finance.

[[Design_Engineering|Design Engineering homepage]]

Design thinking and communication

2025-11-07T09:20:46Z

Stsb11: /* Collaboration - EXAMPLES */

==Uses of 2D and 3D sketching and digital tools==
#Engineering drawing and artistic types of drawing, and either may be called simply "drawing" when the context is implicit. Engineering drawing shares some traits with artistic drawing in that both create pictures. But whereas the purpose of artistic drawing is to convey emotion or artistic sensitivity in some way (subjective impressions), the purpose of engineering drawing is to convey information (objective facts).

==4.1a Demonstrate an understanding of how to use annotated sketching and digital tools to graphically communicate ideas and sketch modelling to explore possible improvements, in terms of physical requirements, such as:==
[[File:sample_idea1.png|500px|thumb|center]]
[[File:sample_idea2.png|500px|thumb|center]]
[[File:sample_idea3.png|500px|thumb|center]]
#Function, usability, construction, movement, stability, composition, strength.
#When developing ideas you will need to discuss the following:
##The functionality, how does the project work, how does it solve the users needs and wants?
##Usability, how easy is the product to use, if the user group finds it difficult to operate, then it will need to be re-designed.
##Construction, how is the product put together, is it glued, welded, screwed together for example?
##Movement, how will any movement be achieved? Will it use any mechanisms for example?
##Stability, will it be able to repeat the tasks without any hinderance or issues?
##Composition, what materials are used to make the product and are they suitable?
##Strength, are the materials you have used strong enough to withstand any forces applied?
#Aesthetic qualities
##As a consumer, most of us are very interested in the way the product looks, have you taken into account what the users would like to see in the product and what they would like it to look like?
#Manufacturing processes. Have you considered the options available to manufacture the parts as well as the entire product, for example:
##One-off manufacturing,
##Injection moulding,
##JIT manufacture.
##These are discussed further in principle 7.
#Suitability of materials and components. Have you discussed the suitability of all the components and materials you have chosen for your product?
##For example, have you decided to use Gold for all the part, this would not be suitable due to its' high costs, or Have you used high power transistors when you only need a low power one?

==4.1b Demonstrate an understanding of methods used to represent systems and components to inform third parties, such as:==
===Constructional diagrams/working drawings===
#Constructional diagrams/working drawings are produced as engineering drawings. These are more than merely the drawing of pictures, it is also a graphical language that communicates ideas and information from one mind to another.
[[File:instructional_diagram.gif|500px|center]]

===Digital visualisations===
#Digital visualisations are any techniques for creating images, diagrams, or animations to communicate a message. Visualization through visual imagery has been an effective way to communicate both abstract and concrete ideas since the dawn of humanity. Examples from history include cave paintings, Egyptian hieroglyphs, Greek geometry, and Leonardo da Vinci's revolutionary methods of technical drawing for engineering and scientific purposes.
[[File:digital_visualisation.jpg|600px|thumb|center]]

===Circuit and system diagrams===
#A circuit diagram (electrical diagram, elementary diagram, electronic schematic) is a graphical representation of an electrical circuit.
[[File:circuit_diag_example.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

===System Diagrams===
#These are models used to visually express the dynamic forces acting upon the components of a process and the interactions between those forces. System Diagrams are more than process flow charts.
[[File:sample_systems_diag.gif|500px|center]]

===Flowcharts with associated symbols===
[[File:flow_chart_symbols.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
[[File:flowchart_sample.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

===prototypes and models===
#All of your products will have been prototype modelled in SolidWorks.
[[File:prototype_model.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Industry professionals use digital design tools to support and communicate the exploration, innovation and development of design ideas?
#Digital tools enable designers to visualise, develop ideas and communicate with their clients more easily, sharing ideas and information using cloud platforms, online forums and e-mail.
#This is turn is making design a more collaborative process as it enables designers, engineers, manufacturers and stakeholders to have an easy input into the design process.

==4.2a An understanding of how designers develop products using digital tools and online collaboration, including:==
#Discussing and exchanging ideas with specialists.
#Developing designs concurrently with other designers.
#Explaining and communicating their design decisions to stakeholders.

==4.2b An understanding of how digital design software is used during design development, including:==
===Visual presentation, rendering and photo-quality imaging===
#Visual presentations are:
##An efficient and quick way of telling the story of manufacture.
##A good way to allow audiences to absorb the information without the product being shown.
##An effective visualisation, graphic or image based communication method to display you product.

===Product simulation and systems simulation===
#Simulation is the imitation of the operation of a real-world process or system over time. The act of simulating something first requires that a model be developed; this model represents the key characteristics, behaviors and functions of the selected physical or abstract system or process. The model represents the system itself, whereas the simulation represents the operation of the system over time.

===Scientific analysis of real-world physical factors===
#These can be used to determine whether a product will break or work the way it was intended.
#The scientific analysis method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry is commonly based on empirical or measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.
#Design engineers use different approaches to design thinking to support the development of design ideas?

==4.3a. Awareness of different strategies, techniques and approaches to explore, create and evaluate design ideas, including:==
===Iterative designing===
#Iterative design is a design methodology based on a cyclic process of prototyping, testing, analyzing, and refining a product or process. Based on the results of testing the most recent iteration of a design, changes and refinements are made. This process is intended to ultimately improve the quality and functionality of a design. In iterative design, interaction with the designed system is used as a form of research for informing and evolving a project, as successive versions, or iterations of a design are implemented. E.g. When developing a new laundry machine, engineers might undertake...
##Rigorous, recurring and progressive testing, modelling and development, with user feedback’ of prototype solutions helps to achieve the fit for purpose outcome.
##The design would be modelled in a development area, using the actual valve and cylinder components to test that the air pressures and forces generated are sufficient to overcome friction and operate the water inlet valve. This will identify any required modifications to improve the design solution.
##User testing and location testing can be used at throughout the process to obtain feedback that identifies where the user foresees issues with the system. This will lead into consideration of modifications in line with stakeholder requirements.
##CAD could be used to model the entire system before manufacture of parts or assembly of system components. This allows clearances to be checked and distances to be finalised before final fitting on site.
##The modelled system can be soak tested, i.e. continually cycled for several thousand operations to generate a rough idea of system life expectancy. The outcomes from this testing can be analysed to identify areas of improvement that need to be made in future iterations of the product development.
##The software for the controller can be developed, debugged and tested with the user before installing into the laundry system. User feedback can be very useful for further developing the solution.

===User-centred design===
#User-centered design (UCD) or user-driven development (UDD) is a framework of processes (not restricted to interfaces or technologies) in which usability goals, user characteristics, environment, tasks and workflow of a product, service or process are given extensive attention at each stage of the design process.
#User-centered design can be characterized as a multi-stage problem-solving process that not only requires designers to analyze and envision the way users are likely to consume a product, but also to validate their assumptions with regard to the user behavior in real world tests.
#These tests are conducted with/without actual users during each stage of the process from requirements, pre-production models and post production, completing a circle of proof back to and ensuring that "development proceeds with the user as the center of focus." Such testing is necessary as it is often very difficult for the designers of a product to understand intuitively what a first-time user of their design experiences, and what each user's learning curve may look like.

===Circular economy===
#A circular economy is a regenerative system in which resource input and waste, emission, and energy leakage are minimised by slowing, closing, and narrowing material and energy loops. This can be achieved through long-lasting design, maintenance, repair, reuse, remanufacturing, refurbishing, and recycling. This is in contrast to a linear economy which is a 'take, make, dispose' model of production.

===Systems thinking===
#Critical systems thinking is a systems thinking framework that wants to bring unity to the diversity of different systems approaches and advises managers how best to use them.
#Critical Systems Thinking "aims to combine systems thinking and participatory methods to address the challenges of problems characterised by large scale, complexity, uncertainty, impermanence, and imperfection. It allows nonlinear relationships, feedback loops, hierarchies, emergent properties and so on to be taken into account and Critical Systems Thinking has particularly problematised the issue of boundaries and their consequences for inclusion, exclusion and marginalisation".

==4.3b. The importance of collaboration to gain specialist knowledge from across subject areas when delivering solutions in the design and manufacturing industries==
#There are many good reasons to collaborate with others with specialist knowledge to develop a product, here are some of the positives:
##Enable quick and effective decision-making
##Facilitate research and access to relevant information and resources
##Reuse ideas, experiences and expertise
##Avoid redundant efforts
##Avoid making the same mistake several times
##Take advantage of existing experiences and expertise
##Communicate widely and quickly important information
##Promote and rapidly deploy reproducible standards, procedures and processes
##Provide methods, tools, templates, techniques and examples
##Ensure that scarce expertise is widely disseminated
##Show clients how knowledge can be used and the benefits that can be gained
##Accelerate delivery times for customers
##Allow the organization to take advantage of its size
##Make the organization the champion of reusing experience to solve its problems
##Stimulate innovation and development
#To read more about these, click on [https://www.elium.com/blog/benefits-of-knowledge-sharing this] link.
===Collaboration - EXAMPLES===
#During the design phase of a product
##Diverse Expertise: Complex systems often require expertise from multiple disciplines such as mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, software engineering, and more. Collaboration allows engineers with different specialties to contribute their unique skills and knowledge to address various aspects of system design, ensuring a comprehensive and well-rounded approach.
##Holistic Problem-solving: Complex systems typically involve interconnected components and subsystems, each with its own requirements and constraints. Collaboration enables engineers to take a holistic approach to problem-solving, considering the interactions and dependencies between different parts of the system and finding solutions that optimize overall performance and reliability.
##Innovation and Creativity: Collaboration fosters an environment where ideas can be shared, challenged, and refined collectively. By collaborating with peers, engineers can leverage each other's creativity and insights to explore new concepts, innovative design approaches, and novel solutions to complex engineering problems, leading to breakthrough innovations and advancements in technology.
##Adaptability and Flexibility: An acknowledgement that complex systems often evolve over time due to changing requirements, technological advancements, or external factors. Collaboration enables engineering teams to adapt and respond to these changes more effectively by fostering a culture of flexibility, open communication, and continuous learning, allowing the system to remain relevant and resilient in the face of evolving challenges.
##User Need Assessment: The collaboration between the designer and engineer begins during the user need assessment. With both parties consulting with professionals in other fields (e.g. medical, aeronautical), users and other stakeholders, they are able to identify key requirements prior to the design process.
##Concept Development and Technical Feasibility: Designers are likely to generate initial concepts and prototypes based on the information gathered in the User Needs Assessment. Concurrently, engineers would have assessed the technical feasibility of the proposed designs considering factors such as materal selection, manufacturing processes and regulatory requirements. They will also be needed to ensure that the product meets the necessary performance standards while remaining practical for it’s intended purpose.
#Prototyping and testing
##Testing: During this phase the designers and engineers will create the prototype together, testing each element and ensuring that the ergonomics and ease of use are upmost. Feedback from professionals in other fields (e.g. scientists, medical, military) with give informed decisions for the engineers and designers to produce new iterations.
##Risk Mitigation: Complex systems carry an inherent risk such as technical failure, safety hazards and costs. CCollaboration will reduce the risk by identifying issues early.
##Quality Assurance: An understanding that collaboration facilitates peer review and feedback, allowing engineers to validate their designs, identify potential flaws or deficiencies, and make necessary improvements before finalising the system. This iterative process of review and refinement helps ensure that the system meets quality standards, regulatory requirements, and customer expectations.
#Manufacturing and production
##Manufacturing Methods: Once a design has been finalised, engineers will work closely with both designing and the manufacturing engineers to oversee the production process. They would ensure that the manufacturing methods and quality control measures were in place to produce the product.
##Efficiency and Productivity: Through collaboration engineers are able to play to others strengths and resources more effectively. By dividing individual tasks and sharing workload engineers would be able to decrease timelines and reduce costs.
##Regulatory Compliance: Throughout the development process, designers and engineers would have collaborated to ensure that the new product complies with the relevant standards and certifications.

==4.3c. Understand how design teams use different approaches to project management when faced with large projects==
===Critical path analysis===
#Critical Path Analysis (CPA), also known as the Critical Path Method (CPM), is a project management technique that identifies the most crucial tasks within a project and determines the shortest possible completion time. It helps project managers allocate resources, monitor progress, and ensure timely completion by focusing on the longest sequence of dependent activities, known as the critical path.
[[File:critical_path.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Here's a more detailed explanation:
##Identifying Critical Tasks: CPA involves listing all project activities, identifying dependencies between them, and estimating the duration of each task.
##Creating a Network Diagram: These activities are then visually represented in a network diagram, showing the sequence and dependencies.
##Determining the Critical Path: The longest sequence of dependent activities, where any delay would directly impact the project completion date, is identified as the critical path.
##Analysing Float: CPA also helps identify activities with "float" or slack, meaning they can be delayed without affecting the project timeline.
##Resource Allocation and Monitoring: Understanding the critical path allows for efficient resource allocation and monitoring of critical tasks, ensuring the project stays on track.
#Benefits of Critical Path Analysis:
##Determines Minimum Project Duration: It helps establish a realistic deadline and target completion time.
##Prioritizes Tasks: It highlights the most important tasks that need constant monitoring and focus.
##Facilitates Resource Allocation: It helps allocate resources effectively by identifying critical and non-critical activities.
##Improves Project Control: It provides a clear framework for managing project dependencies and potential risks.
##Enhances Communication: The network diagram provides a visual representation of the project schedule and dependencies, facilitating communication among team members.

===Scrum===
#Scrum is an Agile project management framework that enables teams to work collaboratively and efficiently to deliver products iteratively and incrementally. It focuses on iterative development, continuous feedback, and adaptive planning, allowing teams to respond effectively to changes and uncertainties.
[[File:scrum_methodology.png|500px|thumb|center]]

#Key aspects of Scrum include:
##Iterative and Incremental Development: Work is broken down into small, time-boxed iterations called sprints, typically lasting two to four weeks.
##Daily Scrum (Stand-up): Short, daily meetings where the team discusses progress, challenges, and plans for the day.
##Sprint Planning: The team selects tasks from the product backlog for the upcoming sprint and determines how they will be completed.
##Sprint Review: At the end of each sprint, the team demonstrates the completed work to stakeholders and gathers feedback.
##Sprint Retrospective: The team reflects on the past sprint, identifies areas for improvement, and plans for the next sprint.
##Roles: Scrum involves key roles like the Product Owner (responsible for maximizing product value), Scrum Master (facilitator for the team), and the Development Team (responsible for delivering the product).
##Artifacts: Scrum uses artifacts like the Product Backlog (a prioritized list of features), Sprint Backlog (a list of tasks for the current sprint), and the Increment (the potentially shippable product delivered at the end of each sprint).
#Scrum's flexibility and iterative approach make it well-suited for projects where requirements may evolve or where the project scope is not fully defined at the outset. It promotes continuous improvement and helps teams deliver value to stakeholders throughout the project lifecycle.

===Six Sigma===
#Six Sigma is a data-driven methodology for improving business processes by reducing defects and waste. It's particularly effective in project management by focusing on improving quality, efficiency, and customer satisfaction through process optimization and variation reduction. Six Sigma project managers leverage statistical tools, financial analysis, and project management principles to identify and address root causes of issues.
[[File:six_sigma.png|500px|thumb|center]]
#Key Aspects of Six Sigma in Project Management:
##DMAIC Framework: Six Sigma projects typically follow the DMAIC framework: Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and Control.
##Focus on Variation Reduction: Six Sigma aims to reduce variation within processes to minimize defects and improve consistency.
##Customer Focus: Six Sigma projects prioritize understanding and meeting customer needs.
##Data-Driven Approach: Six Sigma relies heavily on data analysis to identify problems and track improvements.
##Process Improvement: Six Sigma focuses on improving existing processes, rather than creating new ones.
##Lean Six Sigma: Combining Six Sigma with Lean principles can further optimize processes by eliminating waste and improving efficiency.
##Training and Certification: Six Sigma practitioners undergo training and often achieve certification in various levels, such as Yellow Belt, Green Belt, and Black Belt.
##Financial Benefits: Six Sigma projects often yield tangible financial benefits by reducing costs, improving quality, and increasing customer satisfaction.
##Complementary to Project Management: Six Sigma can be integrated with other project management methodologies, such as Agile or Waterfall, to enhance project success.
##Real-World Examples: Six Sigma has been successfully implemented in various industries, including manufacturing, healthcare, and finance.

[[Design_Engineering|Design Engineering homepage]]

Design thinking and communication

2025-11-07T09:18:23Z

Stsb11:

==Uses of 2D and 3D sketching and digital tools==
#Engineering drawing and artistic types of drawing, and either may be called simply "drawing" when the context is implicit. Engineering drawing shares some traits with artistic drawing in that both create pictures. But whereas the purpose of artistic drawing is to convey emotion or artistic sensitivity in some way (subjective impressions), the purpose of engineering drawing is to convey information (objective facts).

==4.1a Demonstrate an understanding of how to use annotated sketching and digital tools to graphically communicate ideas and sketch modelling to explore possible improvements, in terms of physical requirements, such as:==
[[File:sample_idea1.png|500px|thumb|center]]
[[File:sample_idea2.png|500px|thumb|center]]
[[File:sample_idea3.png|500px|thumb|center]]
#Function, usability, construction, movement, stability, composition, strength.
#When developing ideas you will need to discuss the following:
##The functionality, how does the project work, how does it solve the users needs and wants?
##Usability, how easy is the product to use, if the user group finds it difficult to operate, then it will need to be re-designed.
##Construction, how is the product put together, is it glued, welded, screwed together for example?
##Movement, how will any movement be achieved? Will it use any mechanisms for example?
##Stability, will it be able to repeat the tasks without any hinderance or issues?
##Composition, what materials are used to make the product and are they suitable?
##Strength, are the materials you have used strong enough to withstand any forces applied?
#Aesthetic qualities
##As a consumer, most of us are very interested in the way the product looks, have you taken into account what the users would like to see in the product and what they would like it to look like?
#Manufacturing processes. Have you considered the options available to manufacture the parts as well as the entire product, for example:
##One-off manufacturing,
##Injection moulding,
##JIT manufacture.
##These are discussed further in principle 7.
#Suitability of materials and components. Have you discussed the suitability of all the components and materials you have chosen for your product?
##For example, have you decided to use Gold for all the part, this would not be suitable due to its' high costs, or Have you used high power transistors when you only need a low power one?

==4.1b Demonstrate an understanding of methods used to represent systems and components to inform third parties, such as:==
===Constructional diagrams/working drawings===
#Constructional diagrams/working drawings are produced as engineering drawings. These are more than merely the drawing of pictures, it is also a graphical language that communicates ideas and information from one mind to another.
[[File:instructional_diagram.gif|500px|center]]

===Digital visualisations===
#Digital visualisations are any techniques for creating images, diagrams, or animations to communicate a message. Visualization through visual imagery has been an effective way to communicate both abstract and concrete ideas since the dawn of humanity. Examples from history include cave paintings, Egyptian hieroglyphs, Greek geometry, and Leonardo da Vinci's revolutionary methods of technical drawing for engineering and scientific purposes.
[[File:digital_visualisation.jpg|600px|thumb|center]]

===Circuit and system diagrams===
#A circuit diagram (electrical diagram, elementary diagram, electronic schematic) is a graphical representation of an electrical circuit.
[[File:circuit_diag_example.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

===System Diagrams===
#These are models used to visually express the dynamic forces acting upon the components of a process and the interactions between those forces. System Diagrams are more than process flow charts.
[[File:sample_systems_diag.gif|500px|center]]

===Flowcharts with associated symbols===
[[File:flow_chart_symbols.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
[[File:flowchart_sample.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

===prototypes and models===
#All of your products will have been prototype modelled in SolidWorks.
[[File:prototype_model.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Industry professionals use digital design tools to support and communicate the exploration, innovation and development of design ideas?
#Digital tools enable designers to visualise, develop ideas and communicate with their clients more easily, sharing ideas and information using cloud platforms, online forums and e-mail.
#This is turn is making design a more collaborative process as it enables designers, engineers, manufacturers and stakeholders to have an easy input into the design process.

==4.2a An understanding of how designers develop products using digital tools and online collaboration, including:==
#Discussing and exchanging ideas with specialists.
#Developing designs concurrently with other designers.
#Explaining and communicating their design decisions to stakeholders.

==4.2b An understanding of how digital design software is used during design development, including:==
===Visual presentation, rendering and photo-quality imaging===
#Visual presentations are:
##An efficient and quick way of telling the story of manufacture.
##A good way to allow audiences to absorb the information without the product being shown.
##An effective visualisation, graphic or image based communication method to display you product.

===Product simulation and systems simulation===
#Simulation is the imitation of the operation of a real-world process or system over time. The act of simulating something first requires that a model be developed; this model represents the key characteristics, behaviors and functions of the selected physical or abstract system or process. The model represents the system itself, whereas the simulation represents the operation of the system over time.

===Scientific analysis of real-world physical factors===
#These can be used to determine whether a product will break or work the way it was intended.
#The scientific analysis method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry is commonly based on empirical or measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.
#Design engineers use different approaches to design thinking to support the development of design ideas?

==4.3a. Awareness of different strategies, techniques and approaches to explore, create and evaluate design ideas, including:==
===Iterative designing===
#Iterative design is a design methodology based on a cyclic process of prototyping, testing, analyzing, and refining a product or process. Based on the results of testing the most recent iteration of a design, changes and refinements are made. This process is intended to ultimately improve the quality and functionality of a design. In iterative design, interaction with the designed system is used as a form of research for informing and evolving a project, as successive versions, or iterations of a design are implemented. E.g. When developing a new laundry machine, engineers might undertake...
##Rigorous, recurring and progressive testing, modelling and development, with user feedback’ of prototype solutions helps to achieve the fit for purpose outcome.
##The design would be modelled in a development area, using the actual valve and cylinder components to test that the air pressures and forces generated are sufficient to overcome friction and operate the water inlet valve. This will identify any required modifications to improve the design solution.
##User testing and location testing can be used at throughout the process to obtain feedback that identifies where the user foresees issues with the system. This will lead into consideration of modifications in line with stakeholder requirements.
##CAD could be used to model the entire system before manufacture of parts or assembly of system components. This allows clearances to be checked and distances to be finalised before final fitting on site.
##The modelled system can be soak tested, i.e. continually cycled for several thousand operations to generate a rough idea of system life expectancy. The outcomes from this testing can be analysed to identify areas of improvement that need to be made in future iterations of the product development.
##The software for the controller can be developed, debugged and tested with the user before installing into the laundry system. User feedback can be very useful for further developing the solution.

===User-centred design===
#User-centered design (UCD) or user-driven development (UDD) is a framework of processes (not restricted to interfaces or technologies) in which usability goals, user characteristics, environment, tasks and workflow of a product, service or process are given extensive attention at each stage of the design process.
#User-centered design can be characterized as a multi-stage problem-solving process that not only requires designers to analyze and envision the way users are likely to consume a product, but also to validate their assumptions with regard to the user behavior in real world tests.
#These tests are conducted with/without actual users during each stage of the process from requirements, pre-production models and post production, completing a circle of proof back to and ensuring that "development proceeds with the user as the center of focus." Such testing is necessary as it is often very difficult for the designers of a product to understand intuitively what a first-time user of their design experiences, and what each user's learning curve may look like.

===Circular economy===
#A circular economy is a regenerative system in which resource input and waste, emission, and energy leakage are minimised by slowing, closing, and narrowing material and energy loops. This can be achieved through long-lasting design, maintenance, repair, reuse, remanufacturing, refurbishing, and recycling. This is in contrast to a linear economy which is a 'take, make, dispose' model of production.

===Systems thinking===
#Critical systems thinking is a systems thinking framework that wants to bring unity to the diversity of different systems approaches and advises managers how best to use them.
#Critical Systems Thinking "aims to combine systems thinking and participatory methods to address the challenges of problems characterised by large scale, complexity, uncertainty, impermanence, and imperfection. It allows nonlinear relationships, feedback loops, hierarchies, emergent properties and so on to be taken into account and Critical Systems Thinking has particularly problematised the issue of boundaries and their consequences for inclusion, exclusion and marginalisation".

==4.3b. The importance of collaboration to gain specialist knowledge from across subject areas when delivering solutions in the design and manufacturing industries==
#There are many good reasons to collaborate with others with specialist knowledge to develop a product, here are some of the positives:
##Enable quick and effective decision-making
##Facilitate research and access to relevant information and resources
##Reuse ideas, experiences and expertise
##Avoid redundant efforts
##Avoid making the same mistake several times
##Take advantage of existing experiences and expertise
##Communicate widely and quickly important information
##Promote and rapidly deploy reproducible standards, procedures and processes
##Provide methods, tools, templates, techniques and examples
##Ensure that scarce expertise is widely disseminated
##Show clients how knowledge can be used and the benefits that can be gained
##Accelerate delivery times for customers
##Allow the organization to take advantage of its size
##Make the organization the champion of reusing experience to solve its problems
##Stimulate innovation and development
#To read more about these, click on [https://www.elium.com/blog/benefits-of-knowledge-sharing this] link.
===Collaboration - EXAMPLES===
#During the design phase of a product
##Diverse Expertise: Complex systems often require expertise from multiple disciplines such as mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, software engineering, and more. Collaboration allows engineers with different specialties to contribute their unique skills and knowledge to address various aspects of system design, ensuring a comprehensive and well-rounded approach.
##Holistic Problem-solving: Complex systems typically involve interconnected components and subsystems, each with its own requirements and constraints. Collaboration enables engineers to take a holistic approach to problem-solving, considering the interactions and dependencies between different parts of the system and finding solutions that optimize overall performance and reliability.
##Innovation and Creativity: Collaboration fosters an environment where ideas can be shared, challenged, and refined collectively. By collaborating with peers, engineers can leverage each other's creativity and insights to explore new concepts, innovative design approaches, and novel solutions to complex engineering problems, leading to breakthrough innovations and advancements in technology.
##Adaptability and Flexibility: An acknowledgement that complex systems often evolve over time due to changing requirements, technological advancements, or external factors. Collaboration enables engineering teams to adapt and respond to these changes more effectively by fostering a culture of flexibility, open communication, and continuous learning, allowing the system to remain relevant and resilient in the face of evolving challenges.
##User Need Assessment: The collaboration between the designer and engineer begins during the user need assessment. With both parties consulting with professionals in other fields (e.g. medical, aeronautical), users and other stakeholders, they are able to identify key requirements prior to the design process.
##Concept Development and Technical Feasibility: Designers are likely to generate initial concepts and prototypes based on the information gathered in the User Needs Assessment. Concurrently, engineers would have assessed the technical feasibility of the proposed designs considering factors such as materal selection, manufacturing processes and regulatory requirements. They will also be needed to ensure that the product meets the necessary performance standards while remaining practical for it’s intended purpose.
#Prototyping and testing
##Testing: During this phase the designers and engineers will create the prototype together, testing each element and ensuring that the ergonomics and ease of use are upmost. Feedback from professionals in other fields (e.g. scientists, medical, military) with give informed decisions for the engineers and designers to produce new iterations.
##Risk Mitigation: Complex systems carry an inherent risk such as technical failure, safety hazards and costs. CCollaboration will reduce the risk by identifying issues early.
##Quality Assurance: An understanding that collaboration facilitates peer review and feedback, allowing engineers to validate their designs, identify potential flaws or deficiencies, and make necessary improvements before finalising the system. This iterative process of review and refinement helps ensure that the system meets quality standards, regulatory requirements, and customer expectations.
#Manufacturing and production
##Manufacturing Methods: Once a design has been finalised, engineers will work closely with both designing and the manufacturing engineers to oversee the production process. They would ensure that the manufacturing methods and quality control measures were in place to produce the product.
##Efficiency and Productivity: Through collaboration engineers are able to play to others strengths and resources more effectively. By dividing individual tasks and sharing workload engineers would be able to decrease timelines and reduce costs.
##Regulatory Compliance: Throughout the development process, designers and engineers would have collaborated to ensure that the new product complies with the relevant standards and certifications.

==4.3c. Understand how design teams use different approaches to project management when faced with large projects==
===Critical path analysis===
#Critical Path Analysis (CPA), also known as the Critical Path Method (CPM), is a project management technique that identifies the most crucial tasks within a project and determines the shortest possible completion time. It helps project managers allocate resources, monitor progress, and ensure timely completion by focusing on the longest sequence of dependent activities, known as the critical path.
[[File:critical_path.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Here's a more detailed explanation:
##Identifying Critical Tasks: CPA involves listing all project activities, identifying dependencies between them, and estimating the duration of each task.
##Creating a Network Diagram: These activities are then visually represented in a network diagram, showing the sequence and dependencies.
##Determining the Critical Path: The longest sequence of dependent activities, where any delay would directly impact the project completion date, is identified as the critical path.
##Analysing Float: CPA also helps identify activities with "float" or slack, meaning they can be delayed without affecting the project timeline.
##Resource Allocation and Monitoring: Understanding the critical path allows for efficient resource allocation and monitoring of critical tasks, ensuring the project stays on track.
#Benefits of Critical Path Analysis:
##Determines Minimum Project Duration: It helps establish a realistic deadline and target completion time.
##Prioritizes Tasks: It highlights the most important tasks that need constant monitoring and focus.
##Facilitates Resource Allocation: It helps allocate resources effectively by identifying critical and non-critical activities.
##Improves Project Control: It provides a clear framework for managing project dependencies and potential risks.
##Enhances Communication: The network diagram provides a visual representation of the project schedule and dependencies, facilitating communication among team members.

===Scrum===
#Scrum is an Agile project management framework that enables teams to work collaboratively and efficiently to deliver products iteratively and incrementally. It focuses on iterative development, continuous feedback, and adaptive planning, allowing teams to respond effectively to changes and uncertainties.
[[File:scrum_methodology.png|500px|thumb|center]]

#Key aspects of Scrum include:
##Iterative and Incremental Development: Work is broken down into small, time-boxed iterations called sprints, typically lasting two to four weeks.
##Daily Scrum (Stand-up): Short, daily meetings where the team discusses progress, challenges, and plans for the day.
##Sprint Planning: The team selects tasks from the product backlog for the upcoming sprint and determines how they will be completed.
##Sprint Review: At the end of each sprint, the team demonstrates the completed work to stakeholders and gathers feedback.
##Sprint Retrospective: The team reflects on the past sprint, identifies areas for improvement, and plans for the next sprint.
##Roles: Scrum involves key roles like the Product Owner (responsible for maximizing product value), Scrum Master (facilitator for the team), and the Development Team (responsible for delivering the product).
##Artifacts: Scrum uses artifacts like the Product Backlog (a prioritized list of features), Sprint Backlog (a list of tasks for the current sprint), and the Increment (the potentially shippable product delivered at the end of each sprint).
#Scrum's flexibility and iterative approach make it well-suited for projects where requirements may evolve or where the project scope is not fully defined at the outset. It promotes continuous improvement and helps teams deliver value to stakeholders throughout the project lifecycle.

===Six Sigma===
#Six Sigma is a data-driven methodology for improving business processes by reducing defects and waste. It's particularly effective in project management by focusing on improving quality, efficiency, and customer satisfaction through process optimization and variation reduction. Six Sigma project managers leverage statistical tools, financial analysis, and project management principles to identify and address root causes of issues.
[[File:six_sigma.png|500px|thumb|center]]
#Key Aspects of Six Sigma in Project Management:
##DMAIC Framework: Six Sigma projects typically follow the DMAIC framework: Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and Control.
##Focus on Variation Reduction: Six Sigma aims to reduce variation within processes to minimize defects and improve consistency.
##Customer Focus: Six Sigma projects prioritize understanding and meeting customer needs.
##Data-Driven Approach: Six Sigma relies heavily on data analysis to identify problems and track improvements.
##Process Improvement: Six Sigma focuses on improving existing processes, rather than creating new ones.
##Lean Six Sigma: Combining Six Sigma with Lean principles can further optimize processes by eliminating waste and improving efficiency.
##Training and Certification: Six Sigma practitioners undergo training and often achieve certification in various levels, such as Yellow Belt, Green Belt, and Black Belt.
##Financial Benefits: Six Sigma projects often yield tangible financial benefits by reducing costs, improving quality, and increasing customer satisfaction.
##Complementary to Project Management: Six Sigma can be integrated with other project management methodologies, such as Agile or Waterfall, to enhance project success.
##Real-World Examples: Six Sigma has been successfully implemented in various industries, including manufacturing, healthcare, and finance.

[[Design_Engineering|Design Engineering homepage]]

File:EPQ Application Form 2025-26.docx

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Stsb11: Stsb11 uploaded a new version of File:EPQ Application Form 2025-26.docx

EPQ

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Stsb11: /* Application Process */

==What is the EPQ?==
#[https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/subjects/AQA-W-7993-SP-19.PDF The Extended Project Qualification] (EPQ) is a stand-alone qualification that Year 12 students may choose to take alongside their A-Levels. It is an independent piece of research and work, which may be linked to any of your A-Level subjects but it must not duplicate any work that you cover at A-Level. You may also choose to undertake a project theme that supports an extra-curricular interest or is related to your future career aspirations.
#The EPQ carries UCAS tariff points and is equivalent to half an A-Level: A* 28, A 24, B 20, C 16, D 12, E 8
#Students undertaking the EPQ are required to undertake the following:
##Choose an area of interest
##Draft a title and aims of the project
##Maintain a detailed production log throughout to help demonstrate planning, development and review. (The production log is as crucial as the actual project and forms part of the overall marking process)
##Plan, research and carry out the project, producing a 5000-word report
##Deliver a presentation to a non-specialist audience (e.g. students, teachers etc.)
##Provide evidence of all stages of project development and production for assessment.
#Each student will be allocated a teacher who will act as the project supervisor and ensure that you complete each project milestone.

==Who is the EPQ for?==
#Students applying to university are often looking for a way to 'stand out' from the pack. There are a number of ways this can be achieved, such as:
##Completing an online [https://www.futurelearn.com/info/blog/what-is-a-mooc-futurelearn MOOC] in an area of interest. [https://www.unifrog.org/ UniFrog] has lots to choose from
##Volunteering (e.g. at a care-home, or primary school outside of school time)
##Completing the [https://www.dofe.org/ Duke of Edinburgh's] award
##Being involved in youth organisations such as [https://www.scouts.org.uk/ Scouts] or [https://armycadets.com/ Cadets]
##Completing the EPQ
#It is our experience that the EPQ can be beneficial in some cases where students are looking to apply to courses which have high (e.g. AAA) entry requirements, such as Oxbridge, Veternary, Medicine or Dentistry courses.
#Some providers will reduce an offer of a place (e.g. from AAA to AAB and an A-grade for EPQ).
#When considering an EPQ, students must carefully weigh up the risk of the additional time investment leading to a detrimental effect on their core subject grades.

==How much work is involved?==
#The extended project is expected to involve around 120 hours of work.
#Whilst some of this time will be spent in EPQ-related lectures and in mentor meetings, the vast majority of the work will need to be carried out independently outside of school hours.
#Sessions will take place each Wednesday afternoon in the enrichment slot, and will cover key skills such as referencing and research skills.
#Students who undertake an EPQ must be prepared to commit around three hours per week to their project over and above the hours already required for A-Level study outside of school.
#Every year, significant numbers of students drop their EPQ mid-way through the course. While reasons vary, this is commonly due to being unable to manage the demands of an EPQ as well as commitments to their core subjects. This is especially challenging during exam periods and around coursework deadlines.
#Further guidance on the work involved can be found in the links below, which must be read prior to making your application.

==Entry Criteria==
#Your most recent report data must indicate that you are on track to achieve your target grades, and must have no negative engagement grades.
#We strongly recommend that students wishing to study for an EPQ have an average GCSE score of 7 or better.

==Application Process==
#Ensure that you meet the entry criteria for the EPQ.
#Read the 2025 Production Log (found [https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/10/EPQ_Production_Log_2024-25.docx here]), which you will need to complete in addition to the 5000 work final report.
#Read the [https://wellcome.ac.uk/sites/default/files/wtp057673_0.pdf EPQ Ethical Project guide], which contains guidelines for devising and completing the project.
#Complete the [https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/e/eb/EPQ_Application_Form_2025-26.docx BGS EPQ Application form], sign it and email to [mailto:andrew.mitchell@bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk Mr Andrew Mitchell (Law)] by 04:00 on Wednesday 19 November 2025.
#Applications will be reviewed in November, and successful applicants notified by email in early December.
#Note: Places are limited. Where there are a large number of applicants, you may be called to attend a short interview with a member of the Sixth Form team.

==Key dates==
{| class="wikitable"
! Date
! Activity
|-
|19 November 2025
|Deadline date for EPQ applications
|-
|19 November - 1 December 2025
|Applications assessed
|-
|5 December 2025
|Applicants notified of the outcome. Supervisor details will be issued to successful applicants
|-
|December 2025 - June 2026
|Students work on EPQ
|-
|June - July 2026
|Students deliver EPQ Presentations
|-
|End of Summer Term 2026
|Final deadline for the student submission of completed production logs and projects ahead of marking and moderation process
|-
|Date to be confirmed January 2027
|EPQ results released to students. As this date is after the deadline date for UCAS applications, a predicted grade will be supplied.
|}

==Further Reading==
*[https://filestore.aqa.org.uk/subjects/AQA-W-7993-SP-19.PDF AQA EPQ Specification]

File:EPQ Application Form 2025-26.docx

2025-10-24T11:23:20Z

Stsb11:

Main Page

2025-09-12T15:50:58Z

Stsb11: /* Contents */

==This week in the Sixth Form (Week 2)==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;
! 7/07/25 - Monday
! 8/07/25 - Tuesday
! 9/07/25 - Wednesday
! 10/07/25 - Thursday
! 11/07/25 - Friday
|-
|Tutor Time
|No lecture. Supervised study.
|Tutor time
|Sports Day. Finish at lunch
|Tutor time
|}

==Contents==
{| class="wikitable"
!Live
!Academic
!Careers
!Pastoral
!Information
|-style="vertical-align: top;"
|
*[https://socs.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/Month.aspx School Calendar]
*[[Key Dates 2024-25]]
*[[Head Students and Senior Prefects 2024]]

|
*[[Academic_Support|Academic Support]]
*New:[[EPQ|EPQ Information]]
*Featured:[[Year_13 A Level Exams|Year 13 A-Level Timetable 2025]]
*Featured:[[Year_12 FUPG Timetable 2025|Year 12 FUPG Timetable 2025]]
*[https://www.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/page/?title=Exam+information&pid=152 Exams Information]
*[[Productivity_Resources|Productivity Resources]]
*[[Study Skills]]
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/d/db/Learning_Skills_booklet.docx Learning Skills Booklet]
*[[Subject Pages]]
*[https://www.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/page/?title=A%2DLevel+Subjects%26%23160%3B&pid=154 Subject Specifications]

|
*[[Apprenticeship_Opportunities|Apprenticeship Opportunities]]
*Featured:[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/8/84/Post_18_Options_handbook.pdf Post 18 Options Handbook]
*[[Careers_Resources|Careers Resources]]
*Featured:[[Student Finance_Resources|Student Finance Resources]]

*[[UCAS_Guidance|UCAS Guidance]]
*[[Applying to Medical School]]
*[[Your_Personal_Statement|Effective UCAS Personal Statements]]
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/2/2e/Post_18_launch_26.3.24.pptx Post 18 Day ppt]
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/c/c5/Know_before_you_go.pdf Know before you go]
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/2/21/The_Definitive_Guide_to_not_going_to_Uni.ppt The Definitive Guide to not going to Uni]

|
*Featured:[[PSHE|PSHE Resources]]
*[[Pastoral_Resources|Pastoral Resources]]
*[https://issuu.com/healthguidepublishing/docs/shg_2023_uni_digital_book Student Health Guide]
*[https://www.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/page/?title=Bursary+Fund&pid=150 Bursary Fund]
*[[Enrichment|Enrichment Timetable]]
*[[Sixth Form Student Agreement]]

|
*[[BGS_Sixth_Form_A-Z_Guide|A-Z Guide to the Sixth form]]
*[[The_Sixth_Form_Team|The Sixth Form Team]]
*[[Teacher_List|Teacher and Form Tutor list]]
*[https://www.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/page/?title=Dress+Guidelines&pid=156 Sixth Form Dress Code]
*[[Duke of Edinburgh's Award]]
*[[Lanyard_System|Lanyard check-in/out guide]]
*[[Site Map|Maps of the School site]]
*[[Microsoft Teams Guides]]
*[[structure|Structure of the School Day]]
*[https://www.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/page/?title=Term+Dates&pid=58 Term Dates]
*[[Societies|Societies tbc]]

|}

*The Sixth Form intranet is now available outside of school, at [https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/ https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/]. Use your network username and password to connect.

==Downloads==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/3f/Student_Volunteering_Letter_and_Application_Form_2024.docx Student Volunteering Letter and Application Form 2024]
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/f5/Volunteering_Placement_Parental_Letter_2024.docx Volunteering Parental Letter 2024]

Implications of wider issues

2025-09-11T08:13:53Z

Stsb11: /* iv. Designing with consideration of product life */

==Factors to consider whilst investigating design possibilities==
#Superficially, a manufacturer would like to be unencumbered at the design stage, with free reign to devise new products without limitation. Engineers have a wider social and environmental responsibility to take a broader and longer-term view, however.

==3.1a Understand how social, ethical and environmental issues have influenced and been impacted by past and present developments in design practice and thinking, including:==
===Social, Moral, Ethical and Environmental considerations for Design Engineers===
#Social: How the use of a material/manufacturing method/product could impact on people's lives and the lives of the immediate community.
#E.g. A charity might choose to give 3D printers to developing countries to for the purpose of 3D printing prosthetic limbs. Social considerations/impacts of this might be...
##Allows increased social interaction within the community for the recipient.
##Might enable them to work, and in doing so be able to support their family financially.
##Possibility of the user being ostracised by the community if they feel that the use of prosthetics is culturally inappropriate.
##Could giving the recipient a sense of belonging and allowing them to do jobs within the community.
#E.g. Social issues that might be considered when developing a new outdoor barbeque might be...
##Increase in emotional health as cooking is considered by many as being a relaxing activity
##Increased interaction with friends, as people will often come together to eat
##BBQing is a relatively slow way to cook, so families will spend more time together while their meal is prepared
##Learning to BBQ well provides an opportunity to improve cooking skills
##There may be perceived health benefits of being outside stood up / grilling food rather than other cooking methods that are less active.
#Moral: Morals are the guiding principles that the engineers are working to; these can then be used to help frame ethical considerations (which are generally more practical). One way to consider these issues around a new product would be to consider the potential for someone do something that might be considered undesirable or illegal. Moral issues can also relate to the choice of materials and components and the manufacturing techniques used. Whilst these link into environmental issues, it can be immoral to make choices that disregard the negative impact the development of a product could have.
##With the 3D printed prosthetics scenario, the charity/company would argue that their aim is to help recipients of new limbs lead as normal life as possible.
##...but there is a risk that the printer could be used to produce other items (e.g. weapons) than those for which it is intended which they would need to be aware of.
##Kitchen knives can be used to prepare food, hunt and to create art by carving. They can also be used to commit crimes; a designer could look to avoid putting sharp points, to make knives less likely to be used for stabbing, for instance. The safety of the user is a moral responsibility of the designer.
#Cultural: Cultural issues can arise when a new product does not take into account the fact that a particular shape, colour or name can have very different meanings to different groups of people. Designers need to take care not to offend groups of people with different traditions and beliefs. For example, red is the colour for mourning in Africa whereas in China it is considered to be lucky. A careful choice of name, shape and colour can help promote a sense of unity between different global cultures and is particularly relevant if the product is to be sold in a country with a multi-cultural society. Some examples of moral considerations are...
#Ethical: Considering the impact of a product and whether it is morally correct to produce it. Ethics aim to answer the question, "What should I/we do?". A company/person's decisions are shaped by their values, principles, and purpose rather than unthinking habits, social conventions, or self-interest. Ethical considerations for the 3D printed prosthetics scenario above could be...
##Who pays for the prosthetics and what should the cost be?
##What is the product life span and who decides when it is changed?
##Who decides who is given one?
##At what age should they be given a prosthetic or it be taken away?
##What physiotherapy training will they get when receiving a prosthetic?
##Who will service the machines? Who will pay for repairs? The new filament?
#Environmental: Considering what the impacts (good and bad) will be as the result of taking a particular course of action. E.g. A new laptop involves sourcing new raw materials, transporting these to a factory (in lorries), energy-intensive processing to manufacture them, transport again on lorries then cargo containers then lorries to get them to the consumers who are to use them. Once in use, they will consume electrical energy throughout their life-span. At end-of-life, the various components (made from a variety of materials) risk ending up in landfill unless they can be recycled.
#Marketing: Design Engineers will also need to have regard as to what will need thinking about when it comes time to try and sell the product. Especially if the product isn't entirely new, but trying to find it's place in an existing market place. They will often seek to find a Unique Selling Point (USP) that makes the new product stand out from the competition.
#E.g. Marketing issues that might be considered when developing a new outdoor barbeque might be...
##Current culinary trends; gas or charcoal? Recently, there's increased interest in vegetarian/vegan diets. This could be used in marketing materials.
##Age range of the target audience.
##The size of the market along with their disposable income to spend on outdoor cooking. This will determine the best price point - is a cheap product most likely to sell, or a higher-priced model made with premium materials and which has lots of extra features?
##Understand the end goal of that market group with regards to BBQ-ing. What is the customer looking for? A quick and compact BBQ for occasional use, or something large designed to cater for large numbers and be used regularly?
##The life span of the BBQ, enabling it to be sold with a long warranty
##Any potential for accessories that be sold to compliment and extend the functionality of the BBQ (e.g. a pizza stone insert, rotisserie for cooking chickens, etc)

*Practice question: Discuss how the engineer’s responsibility extends beyond meeting the needs of the consumer and manufacturer.
*Practice question: Many UK-based companies manufacture their electronic products in other countries. Discuss the moral and/or ethical considerations of the globalisation of product manufacture.

===i. Consideration of lifecycle assessment (LCA) at all stages of a product’s life from raw material to disposal===
#Life cycle assessment is a methodology for assessing environmental impacts associated with all the stages of the life cycle of a commercial product, process, or service. For instance, in the case of a manufactured product, environmental impacts are assessed from raw material extraction and processing, through the product's manufacture, distribution and use, to the recycling or final disposal of the materials composing it.
##Acquisition of raw materials. All products or systems are created from raw materials. Consider the energy needed to extract oil, ores and timber. Look at the environmental impact of mining, deforestation and other issues related to the extraction of raw materials.
##Transporting raw materials. Consider how raw materials are transported nationally and internationally and examine the environmental impact of, for example, oil tanker disasters and pollution of the air by fuel emissions. Using electric vehicles is cleaner for road users but the generation of electricity to recharge vehicle batteries impacts on the environment.
##Processing raw materials. Consider the energy requirements and environmental effects of transforming raw materials by chemical or physical processing methods, for example, smelting and converting ores into usable materials, making polymers from oil.
##Manufacturing the product. Most products require machine processing. The manufacturing industry requires energy for machines, lighting, heating, etc. Textile products are often dyed during manufacture and the chemicals used may have an environmental impact. Often manufacturing doesn’t take place in the same area as material processing. Transporting materials, components and completed products for distribution involves considerable energy use and impacts on the environment.
##Using the product Some products require no further energy in usage. Many products, such as cars, washing machines and electrical items use significant amounts of energy. Some products, such as milk bottles, are reused; energy is used for cleaning before refilling. Detergents used may have an environmental impact.
##Disposal and recycling The collection of waste requires energy. Incineration centres use energy to dispose of waste, although many reclaim the energy created by incineration for useful purposes. Landfill systems may impact on the environment. Often recycling materials can use significant amounts of energy, but this will use less raw materials and conserve valuable natural resources.
===LCA Case Study: A fridge===
#An LCA for a domestic refrigerator might consider...
##Sourcing materials
###Energy needed to extract or recycle metals (steel, aluminium copper) and polymers – pollution and waste products.
###Manufacture of harmful/toxic refrigerant gasses – energy used, pollutants created.
###Manufacture of electronic components – chemicals extracted, energy, pollution.
##Product assembly
###Energy to press steel sheets into shape.
###Energy to form thermoplastics into shape.
###Manufacture of PCBs – energy, pollution
###Filling of refrigerant gas – risk of leaks.
###Product assembly in factory – energy for lighting/heating/machinery.
##Use
###Energy used during product use.
###Standby energy – product always on – considerable energy used over product lifetime.
###Energy rating of product.
###Improved thermal insulation of fridge to reduce energy requirements.
##End of life
###Risk of release of refrigerant gas into environment.
###Much of product could be recycled.
###Take back scheme by manufacturer.
###Risk of dumping in landfill.
###Gas can be safely removed and reused.
###Thermal insulation materials can be difficult to recycle.
###Steel can be recycled.
###Use of RoHS directive should reduce use of harmful materials
##Transport
###At all stages, transportation to move materials/parts/products around.
###Globalisation may involve huge distances being travelled around world.
###Fuel used, pollution produced.
###Bulky product so takes up a lot of space on transport vessel.
#You can read more about LCA in the textbook on page 70.
#You can see a real-life UK government-funded LCA for a plastic bag [https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/291023/scho0711buan-e-e.pdf here].

===ii. The source and origin of materials; and the ecological and social footprint of materials===
#LCA is an analysis of the overall impact of a new product throughout its life. This starts with compiling an inventory of relevant inputs and outputs, then evaluating the potential environmental impacts associated with those inputs and outputs and interpreting the results of the inventory and impact phases in relation to the objectives of the study.
#A product starts life as raw materials. Will these be taken from the ground (e.g. an iron ore mine) or take from recycled sources (e.g. recycled aluminium cans)? To dig new material from the ground will require considerable energy to drive plant machinery, to be refined into pure material and then will need shipping to the factory for production.
#Once built, products tend to consume additional resources. A car, for instance will need a constant stream of petrol or diesel – how much will depend on the engine capacity and how efficient it is. The car will also need new tyres, exhaust pipes and other predictable spare parts during its lifetime.
#At ‘end of life’, a product should be designed to be as recyclable as possible. A dishwasher can be dismantled into a set of mild and stainless steel parts which can be recycled; plastic parts can be sorted by plastic type and recycled and so on. By using materials which are known to be readily recyclable, the amount which goes to landfill can be minimised.
#Further reading: http://www.gdrc.org/uem/lca/lca-define.html

====Social Footprint====
#A company’s social footprint measures their effect on people and communities. Impacts can be both positive and negative.
#General examples include...
##Mining chemicals to make batteries can scar the environment.
##Building of factories to manufacture the product can have a negative impact on the landscape and environment.
##Building of factories to manufacture/distribute the product can lead to the creation of jobs in the local community.
#For a more specific example, a Textile factory can have a negative impact on communities in a variety of ways, including:
##Noise: Knitting and weaving manufacturing can be loud
##Waste disposal: this must be dealt with responsibly, especially any hazardous chemicals involved in cotton production.
##Child labour: the use of children in textile production remains a challenge for the clothing industry. Fibre dust - the dust released in textile processing can cause respiratory diseases for those in close proximity
##Worker’s rights: consideration needs to be given to the working conditions and pay of skilled and unskilled textile workers

====Ecological footprint====
#An ecological footprint measures the impact of human activity on the environment and how much natural resource is needed.
#Considering the use of timber (for example), the ecological footprint of this might include...
##Timber is a natural material which must be grown in forests, it can take up a substantial area of land to grow and be cultivated. Whilst the production of timber is nearly carbon neutral, energy is needed
to process and transport the timber to the market source.
##Whilst timbers can take several decades to grow, softwoods grow significantly faster than hardwoods. Therefore the use of softwoods in the construction and furniture industry produces a smaller ecological footprint.
##Throughout the production of products the waste material created from the various processes is often used for fuel or for the production of manufactured materials i.e. MDF.
#A growing population means that more raw products are needed to fulfil their textiles needs. Ecological impacts of textiles might include...
##Farming: Growing natural fibres such as cotton can lead to the degradation of soil. This can lead farmers to expand into other areas, destroying natural habitats. Cotton production and processing uses a lot of water, so rivers are often diverted, which has a severe impact on ecosystems such as the Indus Delta in Pakistan. Use of fertilisers and pesticides in cotton production can cause pollution in rivers and drinking water, causing health concerns for workers and local wildlife. Rearing animals, such as sheep or alpacas, for their wool also leads to expanding land requirements, which can cause deforestation and loss of habitat.
##Drilling: Drilling for oil to produce man-made synthetic textiles requires large storage areas and refining plants to change the oil into the materials needed for manufacturing. This process can be harmful to the environment. Oil is non-renewable and, when refined, produces fabrics that do not biodegrade easily.
#Whenever environmental impact is to be reduced, ‘the 6 Rs’ can be addressed to ensure an in-depth analysis has been done. The 6 Rs can be considered by the designer, the manufacturer and the consumer to reduce that negative impact on the environment.
##Reduce the number of the amount of energy or materials used during production
##Reuse products rather than buying new ones
##Recycle into other products
##Rethink production techniques to conserve power, water and fuel emissions, eg the development of more environmentally friendly colouring techniques results in less contaminated waste water.
##Refuse to buy products that have been aren’t ‘fair trade’ or that have excessive packaging.
##Repair broken products, reducing waste and saving energy on production.
#Further reading [http://www.gdrc.org/uem/lca/lca-define.html here]

===iii. The depletion and effects of using natural sources of energy and raw materials===
#As you will have been taught in science lessons, any finite resource which needs to be dug from the ground is classed as non-renewable. Products should be designed to use the minimum necessary amount of material and, as discussed above, should come from recycled sources as far as possible to make the most efficient use possible of available resource.
#By using renewable energy sources (E.g. Wind/solar/geothermal/tidal) wherever possible, the rate of drain of non-renewable sources can be limited. Unfortunately, renewable sources tend to be dependent on variables such as whether its windy, meaning that it is difficult to rely solely on these as the primary source of energy for the plant.

===iv. Planned obsolescence===
#Exam board definition: The process of designing products to go out of fashion or no longer function after a specific period of time
##E.g. A laptop computer will be designed with the currently available processor and memory chips but these will become outdated as the manufacturers are always driven to make faster processors and bigger memory. This means that the laptop’s power will start to look slow compared with newer models and the latest software may not run at all. The user will then need to buy a new laptop and, if they have had a good experience with a particular brand, they may wish to stay with that brand. A similar experience happens with mobile phones which generally have even more limited scope to be upgraded.
#Designing a product with an artificially limited useful life forces consumers to shorten the replacement cycle of their product and encourage future purchases of a new model. This can be achieved by ceasing production of machine-specific pods for a coffee machine, stopping the supply of spare parts for a specific vacuum cleaner, making a product difficult/impossible to repair, having ultra-trendy clothes which go out of fashion quickly, etc.
#Further reading [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_obsolescence here]

===v. Buying trends===
#Trends among the public can heavily influence engineers as the rush to create products to satisfy those looking for the ‘next big thing’. The appetite for electric vehicles demonstrated by Toyota with their Prius along with the launch of Tesla motors high-performance cars has led to all the main car manufacturers developing and launching their own EVs in order to bring about the next major revolution in the car industry – a sector which has now moving away from a century-old technology to embrace a more environmentally friendly approach to transport.

===environmental incentives and directives===
#Most World governments believe that global warming is a man-made problem, and that it is wise to lower carbon footprints. Governments can help modify the behaviour of the public by creating incentives to be more green.
#The UK Government incentivised the installation of solar panels on homes, offering generous feed-in rates to early adopters who could enjoy considerable savings on their energy bills.
#Building regulations can be changed to insist that new homes are insulated to a specific level, legislation can outlaw incandescent bulbs for homes to be replaced with more energy efficient LED ones and vacuum cleaners have had the maximum power of their motors capped.

===vi. Environmental incentives and directives===
#Environmental tax incentives encourage businesses to operate in a more environmentally friendly way. There are taxes and schemes for different types and size of business.
#Examples of these incentives are:
##you use a lot of energy because of the nature of your business, you could get tax relief for using more renewable energy sources.
##you’re a small business that doesn’t use much energy.
##you buy energy-efficient technology for your business.

==Environmental directives==
#Waste of electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) such as computers, TV-sets, fridges and cell phones is one the fastest growing waste streams in the EU, with some 9 million tonnes generated in 2005, and expected to grow to more than 12 million tonnes by 2020.
#WEEE is a complex mixture of materials and components that because of their hazardous content, and if not properly managed, can cause major environmental and health problems.
#Moreover, the production of modern electronics requires the use of scarce and expensive resources (e.g. around 10% of total gold worldwide is used for their production). To improve the environmental management of WEEE and to contribute to a circular economy and enhance resource efficiency the improvement of collection, treatment and recycling of electronics at the end of their life is essential.
#The RoHS Directive 2002/95/EC on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in such equipment aims to reduce the amount of harmful substances at source. This should ensure that they are not leached into the environment by equipment, some of which will, inevitably, not be recycled.

==Factors to consider when developing design solutions for manufacture==
#There are three different scales of production: one-off, batch and mass/continuous flow. Products will be engineered differently depending on how the product is to be made.

==3.2a Awareness of the responsibilities and principles of designing for manufacture (DFM), including:==
#There are four strands to DFM: Planning, Scale of Production, Repair and Maintenance & Product Life
===i. Planning for accuracy and efficiency through testing and prototyping===
#Prior to production, a large number of prototypes will be produced and experimented with. Each time a new sub-system is created, it can then be examined for ways to further improve it. Can the parts be made smaller? Are there empty spaces inside the housing (voids) which parts/wiring can be moved into? Can the internal parts be made thinner/lighter without affecting performance or durability? Thorough repeated testing can help answer these questions.
#In terms of 'Design for Manufacture', engineers might also...
##Minimise the number of parts
##Standardise the parts and materials, make maximum use of purchased parts, modular design and standard design features
##reduce the number of manufacturing operations
##Create modular parts assemblies
##Create methods for efficient joining
##Minimise any re-orientation of parts during assembly (this can be done by making parts symmetrical and avoiding the use of left-and right-handed parts).
#Preparation work for the design of the product. Where will the product be used? Is there anything that can be done to help it work better in that environment?
#Creating accurate plans will enable efficient installation and assembly either onsite (e.g. for a pumping station for a waterworks) or at the factory.
#Testing and prototyping of designs can take place prior to expensive manufacture costs.

===ii. Being aware of issues in relation to different scales of production===
#In a one-off product, only a single item is to be produced. Products made like this include catwalk clothes, wedding cakes, bespoke jewellery and prototypes for new products. Products made in this way are commonly made using hand-tools (e.g. drills, saws, screwdrivers, sheets of sandpaper), to allow a high quality finish. Items made this way will be inconsistent in their accuracy, given human margins of error.
#In a batch-production system, a specific number of items is made. In a bakery, a batch of 50 buns might be made, or a run of 1000 plastic buckets might be produced by injection moulding. Whether large or small, the defining characteristic is the finite number. In order to make batches which are consistent, jigs and formers are often used. Methods such as vacuum forming or laser-cutting may be deployed in order to facilitate the rapid production of parts. This may be coupled with some hand techniques in order to fabricate the finished product. An advantage of batch production setups is that they typically allow the flexibility to change the setup (e.g. re-design a part, change the product to be made) quickly.
#In mass (or continuous flow) production, the product in question is made all day, every day, non-stop (aside from scheduled breaks for maintenance). In order to achieve this and to maximise both output speed, accuracy and quality of the finished product, the majority of processes will be automated to the highest possible extent.
#Understanding and making reference to the fact that these will be one-off or small batch production. Items will be designed for a specific area and requirement.
#Cost implications of the above in the manufacture should be considered, to see if any of these can be reduced.
#Modular design may be appropriate, enabling larger production volume with lower costs if different elements can be made in different locations.
#It may be possible to outsource of the production of parts or the use of bought in components rather than making all parts from scratch to improve turnaround time/quality or reduce costs.

===iii. Designing for repair and maintenance===
#In commercial products (and many domestic ones), it is imperative that the designer recognises that their product will fail from time to time, necessitating parts being replaced in order to bring the device back online. In order to minimise the amount of time it takes to repair, designers can take several steps: Add removable access panels to the product, use generic parts (e.g. stepper motors) and ensuring that internal components can be easily removed (e.g. with bolts).
#Consideration should be made for the repair of the product once deployed.
##Parts should be easily replaced (it may be appropriate to use features like security screws to stop tampering).
##Parts should be readily available to reduce costs and ease availability and repair time scales.
##Parts should be tested so if they do fail, the chance of injuring the user is reduced. Materials considerations should be thought through for durability.
#Replaceable components. Over time some components will require replacing, for example chain, bearings or rubber parts will degrade. These parts should be easily replaced and be available.
#Can the product be easily repainted or cleaned?
#To ensure that the equipment maintains the safety standards as may be set out in British Standards or law.
#The equipment should be able to be maintained on a regular basis and should be designed for this ease of maintenance. Could be through simple design.
#Parts should be interchangeable where possible and/or use standardised components.

===iv. Designing with consideration of product life===
#Some products are designed to be ‘single-shot’, such as a promotional novelty light-up toy. Items such as this can be glued together with batteries sealed inside, as they only need to last a few hours. Other products such as cars will potentially run for several decades, and as such will need to be designed so that every component can be removed and replaced within a few hours.
#Consideration for the environment that the product will be in should be considered when choosing the materials being used
#Replacable parts can extend product life (planned obsolesence)

===3.2b Awareness of product lifecycles that extend useful product life through planning for and consideration of maintenance, repair, upgrades, remanufacture and recycling systems===
#As discussed above, products’ lifespans will be considered as part of the design process. Maintenance and repair are discussed above. Creating upgrade options for products allows their useful life to be extended; this can be seen with the introduction of the VR headset for the PS4 console or upgrades to pre-existing London underground carriages in order to make them more attractive and comfortable.
#Remanufacturing is where an end-of-life product returns to the manufacturer. The product is then stripped down and re-build using new parts where necessary until the product is restored to an ‘as-new’ condition. These are then sold as remanufactured, often more cheaply than purchasing a new item. Examples include clutches for cars and Macbook Pro laptops from Apple. There is an environmental advantage to this too, as fewer new parts need to be manufactured to produce the ‘new’ part.

==3.2c Demonstrate an understanding of how environmental factors impact on:==
===i. Sourcing and processing raw materials into a workable form===

===ii. The disposal of waste, surplus materials and components, by-products of production===
#including pollution related to energy

===iii. Cost implications related to materials and process===
#Discussed above. Taking materials from the ground involves high cost at every turn: expensive plant machinery, manpower to operate it, the purchasing of the land to be mined, refinery costs to process ore into pure materials, the purchase/hire of lorries and people to drive them and then the cost of a factory (and workers) to manufacture the finished product. Once made, lorries/ships/planes are needed again to transport the good to shops for consumers.
#At an energy consumption level, digging ore from a quarry consumes large amounts of electricity and diesel/gas for machinery. Once extracted, ore needs transporting to a refinery. Heating ore to a molten state to separate pure metals requires further energy and then transporting the resulting material across the Planet to a factory for machining represents a further use of fossil fuels. Wherever possible, sourcing recycled materials that have already been obtained can limit further carbon emissions, although this also requires some processing and consumes energy.
#At end-of-life, the objective of the engineering team will be to make their products as close to 100% recyclable as possible. When manufacturers built products (especially in a mass production environment) in the past, production teams would ensure that sufficient component parts would be kept in stock to avoid running out and having to cease production. Unfortunately, this meant that when a product came to the end of its run, large numbers of bespoke component parts would be left which would be unusable for any future purpose, often needing to either go to landfill or to be recycled.

==3.2d Demonstrate an understanding of sustainability issues relating to industrial manufacture, including:==
===i. Fair trade and the Ethical Trade Initiative (ETI)===
*Fair Trade is both a movement and a certification system that aims to give farmers and workers in developing countries a fairer deal for their products. When you see the Fair Trade stamp on items like chocolate, it indicates that the producers have received a minimum, stable price for their goods as well as an additional 'Fair Trade Premium', which can be invested in local community projects such as schools or medical facilities. Beyond pricing, Fair Trade also promotes safe working conditions, protects workers' rights, and supports environmental sustainability. Read more about Fair trade [https://www.fairtrade.org.uk/ here].
*The Ethical Trade Initiative (ETI) is a leading alliance of companies, trade unions, and non-governmental organizations that promotes respect for workers’ rights around the globe. It focuses on improving conditions in global supply chains by encouraging companies to adopt and implement the ETI Base Code—an internationally recognized set of labour standards drawn from the International Labour Organization (ILO). Members of the ETI commit to working collaboratively, conducting regular assessments, and taking steps to address issues such as low wages, unsafe workplaces, and discrimination. Through these efforts, the ETI aims to foster more responsible business practices, ensuring that workers receive fair treatment and decent working conditions. Read more about the ETI [https://www.ethicaltrade.org/about-eti here]

===ii. Economic issues and globalisation===
#Globalisation refers to the increasing integration and interdependence of countries and people around the world. This process is driven by the flow of goods, services, information, and cultural influences across borders. It is made possible by advances in technology, transportation, and communication, which allow businesses to operate internationally and people to connect across long distances. Globalisation can lead to economic growth, wider access to products, and cultural exchange, but it also raises concerns about inequality, exploitation, and the loss of local traditions.

==iii. Material sustainability and optimisation, availability, recycling and conservation schemes, such as:==
#exploring the impact and use of eco-materials. Pages 2-3 of [http://www.d4s-sbs.org/MH.pdf this document] give a definition and examples.
#exploring how materials can be up-cycled. Up-cycling is the process of taking a product which would ordinarily be thrown away, and re-working it to create a new (wanted) product. Doing this extends the life of the product and prevents that item from going to landfill. Examples of this can be seen all over the web, and range in their complexity. Cutting the top off an old water bottle allows the bottom half to be used as a plant-pot or for storing pencils in, for instance. Others have taken old lego-bricks, drilled holes through them and threaded them to create jewellery, or cutting oil drums in half then adding steel legs to create barbeques.

==3.3a. Demonstrate an understanding of how to achieve an optimum use of materials and components, including:==

===i. The cost of materials and/or components===
#When designing new products, it is desirable to use the least amount of material possible to achieve the task at hand.
#Some materials are more costly than others – but why? Let’s consider woods and man-made boards (e.g. plywood, cardboard, MDF). MDF and chipboard are two of the cheapest man-made boards to purchase. These are made from roughly broken up chips of scrap wood (chipboard) or waste sawdust from working with wood products which are mixed up with glue and pressed into sheets. As they can be made from any scrap wood, they are very low-cost to manufacture.
#Pine (a softwood, popular for making furniture) is also cheap, and provides an attractive grain in its finished product. Pine grows very quickly and therefore new stocks of pine can be readily produced, reducing its cost. Oak (a hardwood), on the other hand grows very slowly, but produces a denser, stronger wood with an attractive colour. Because of this, it is more expensive to farm and this affects its price.

===ii. Stock sizes and forms available===
#Although materials are often chosen first, sometimes it is the shape and process which is the limiting factor. The availability and stock forms of materials also affect price, as commonly available forms are more cost effective than special sizes.
#They are made in quantity, so bulk purchasing can mean less transportation socts and this can also benefit the environment.

===iii. Sustainable production===
#When selecting machine screws to bolt two pieces of 5mm Acrylic together, the engineer might select an M3x12 machine screw (3mm diameter, 12mm long). This would give 2mm protruding from the back of the last piece of acrylic which an M3 nut can be threaded onto to hold the pieces together. If a longer machine screw were selected, the extra protruding material is effectively waste.
#When designing a light-weight box to store nails on a shelf in a workshop, the designer might elect to use MDF sheet (very low cost material; made from sawdust and urea formaldehyde). This is available in a number of industry-standard thicknesses: 3mm, 6mm, 9mm, 12mm, 18mm and 25mm. Any of these could be used, but the designer would probably select 3mm for this specific application – the box won’t have to carry a large amount of weight. If they were designing the shelf (and so needed more strength), 18mm or 25mm would be more appropriate.
#There are lots of different materials; you don’t need to have an encyclopaedic knowledge of these, but you should be able to identify a few hardwoods, softwoods, man-made boards, ferrous metals, non-ferrous metals, thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics. [[https://bournetoinvent.com/projects/a_level_de_theory/5.html][www.BourneToInvent.com]] has plenty on this in its theory section on resistant materials.

==Factors to consider when distributing products to markets?==
==3.4a. Understand the issues related to the effective and responsible distribution of products, including:==
===i. Cost effective distribution===
===ii. Environmental issues and energy requirements===
===iii. Social media and mobile technology===
===iv. Global production and delivery===
#When a business finds themselves shipping large amounts of a product, a strategy is needed to ensure that costs are kept down to ensure that profit is maximised. A number of approaches could be taken:
#A single, large distribution centre located in the middle of the region/country that the business most commonly serves. The business will only have a single set of heating, lighting, water, broadband, etc to pay for and a single set of employees to organise and care for. Stock all arrives at a single point, and logistics are straightforward. Unfortunately, if more customers start to appear further afield, transport costs start to increase. Additionally, if there is a problem at the centre (e.g. IT failure), the entire shipping operation ceases to function.
#Several smaller centres are another option (there’s an Ikea distribution centre in Peterborough, for instance). These provide some redundancy in the event of a system failure, but for a smaller business, each centre many not be able to hold as much stock as a larger one.
#Things become more complex if/when a company chooses to start shipping internationally. If a company is producing bulky items (e.g. a car), sending to another country means putting products into steel shipping containers and having them travel on a boat to their destination. To get an item to/from China takes around 40-50 days; customers may not be willing to wait that long, and so additional distribution centres may be needed. Alternatively, businesses may elect to set up additional factories around the World to make the product(s) in the country they’ll be sold in (e.g. Coke).
#Nice article on this [http://ibisinc.com/blog/10-critical-factors-to-a-cost-effective-distribution-strategy/ here].

== 3.4b. Demonstrate an understanding of the implications of intellectual property (IP), registered designs, registered trademarks, copyright, design rights and patents, in relation to ethics in design practice and consumer rights. ==
#Intellectual Property is something unique that someone physically creates (not merely an idea). A book isn’t IP, but the words within it are, for instance.
#[https://www.gov.uk/register-a-design Registered designs] allow designers to protect the look of a product to stop others from copying/stealing it. This gives the designer protection for 25 years.
#Trademarks allow a company to distinguish their product from others' brands and prevents others from using their brand (e.g. Coke®, Apple®). It’s designed to protect consumers from counterfeiters, allowing the owner to take legal action against anyone using it.
##Used by a company or individual to identify their brand.
##Trademarks can be in the form of a word, name, song, or symbol.
##Trademarks can be registered as a logo, slogan, domain name, shape or sound.
##To register a trademark it must be unique and distinctive.
##Trademarks must be fair and accurate.
##Trademarks must be morally acceptable.
##Must be registered with the Intellectual Property Office (IPO).
##Must be renewed every 10 years.
#[https://www.gov.uk/copyright Copyright] protects business’ work for 70 years, to prevent others from using it without permission. It is automatic (you don’t need to apply) when you create literary/dramatic work, software, web content and broadcasts. Unless they have your permission to do so, others can’t copy, sell your work or put it online.
##A set of exclusive rights given to creators of original ideas, information or other intellectual works.
##Copyright material can only be copied, used or recreated with the owner’s permission.
##Copyright protection is automatic and no registration is needed.
##The work is often marked with the © symbol, used alongside the creator’s name and the date.
##Work is still protected even without the © symbol.
##Copyright does not protect the ideas for a piece of work.
##Copyright lasts for 70 years for most types of written work.
##Photographs are copyrighted for 25 years.
#Registered Designs gives the designer ownership rights for the appearance of a product.
##Protects distinctive product shape, pattern or decoration.
##Protects distinctive visual features e.g. lines, contours, colours, materials.
##The design must be new and original.
##Must have a unique character, not resemble an existing design.
##Must be registered with the Intellectual Property Office (IPO).
##Must be renewed every 5 years.
#[https://www.gov.uk/design-right Design rights] automatically protect protect the creator of a design (unless a 3rd party commissions the work) for 10 years after the designs are created, to stop people copying your designs. While one does not need to register, doing to provides better protection.
##Design rights protect the configuration or shape of a product.
##They can be used to prevent copying of an original design without permission.
##Design rights do not protect the 2D aspects of the design, e.g. patterns.
##Design rights can be bought, sold or licensed.
##They stay in force for 10 years after first marketing of the product (or 15 years after creating the design).
##For the first 5 years, others are prevented from copying the design.
##For the remaining time the design is subject to a licence of right.
##Design rights only apply in the UK.
#Patents are expensive and difficult to obtain, but they provide a way to protect an invention. A patent-holder can take legal action against anyone who makes, uses or sells your invention without your permission. Large corporations like Adobe hold many patents for different parts of their products to ensure they have a competitive advantage.
##Granted by the government, they offer strong protection.
##Difficult to obtain, involving long, expensive, technical processes.
##Inventors must publicise all details of the invention.
##Patent lawyers are often employed to write a strong patent.
##Protect against copying the technical and functional aspects of a design.
##Can cover how a device works and what materials are used.
##Protect designs and inventions for 20 years.
##The invention must be new.
##It must have an inventive step that is not obvious to someone with technical knowledge.
##The invention must be capable of being made.

==3.5a. Understand wider issues relating to the selection of energy sources, storage, transmission and utilisation in order to select them appropriately for use.==
#Energy sources:
##Solar Energy.
##Wind Energy.
##Geothermal Energy.
##Hydrogen Energy.
##Tidal Energy.
##Wave Energy.
##Hydroelectric Energy.
##Biomass Energy.
#Click [here https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/different-energy-sources.php] to read more about these sources.

==Energy storage==
#Energy storage. Energy storage systems, also known as batteries or thermal stores, allow you to capture heat or electricity when it is readily available, typically from a renewables system, and save it until a time when it is useful to you.

==Energy transmission==
#Electric power transmission is the bulk movement of electrical energy from a generating site, such as a power plant, to an electrical substation. The interconnected lines which facilitate this movement are known as a transmission network.

==Energy utilisation==
#Energy utilization focuses on technologies that can lead to new and potentially more efficient ways of using electricity in residential, commercial and industrial settings—as well as in the transportation sector.

==How can skills and knowledge from other subjects areas, including mathematics and science, inform decisions in product design==
==3.6a. Demonstrate an understanding of the need to incorporate knowledge from other experts and subjects to inform design and manufacturing decisions, including the areas of science and mathematics==
#When creating ambitious new products, teams of engineers, computer scientists, physicists and mathematicians will be required to work together. Each brings a unique perspective to help develop the design to be optimal – the computer scientist might advise on a better smartphone user-interface or way to make the product work more intuitively. The physicist may be able to suggest a design modification to make an engine part more lightweight and stronger at the same time. The mathematician may be able to identify a way to make a 3D printer operate more rapidly by suggesting an improved algorithm.

==3.6b. Understand how undertaking primary and secondary research and being able to interpret technical data and information from specialist websites and publications supports design development==
#Primary research is that which the engineering team conduct themselves, such as an interview with users of an existing system or watching users of said system using their current system. This has the advantage of providing a ‘feel’ for the problem to be solved.
#Secondary research is the process of gathering data that has already been produced: Company reports, web searches or datasheets for electronics parts. This allows users to learn about new design approaches, technological developments or the release of new parts which may be useful in designing a new system.

==Practice Question==
#Designers and manufacturers should consider the social footprint and the ecological footprint of any materials they use.
##Describe how a social footprint is created by the manufacture of a product. [2]
##Describe the ecological footprint that results when using timber in products. [4]
##Discuss how a lifecycle assessment (LCA) would be carried out on a domestic refrigerator. Make reference to the following stages of the product’s life in your answer:
###manufacture;
###use;
###end of life. [8]
#DesEng AS Practice paper 1, Q3.

[[Design_Engineering|Design Engineering homepage]]

Implications of wider issues

2025-09-11T08:12:46Z

Stsb11: /* 3.2a Awareness of the responsibilities and principles of designing for manufacture (DFM), including: */

==Factors to consider whilst investigating design possibilities==
#Superficially, a manufacturer would like to be unencumbered at the design stage, with free reign to devise new products without limitation. Engineers have a wider social and environmental responsibility to take a broader and longer-term view, however.

==3.1a Understand how social, ethical and environmental issues have influenced and been impacted by past and present developments in design practice and thinking, including:==
===Social, Moral, Ethical and Environmental considerations for Design Engineers===
#Social: How the use of a material/manufacturing method/product could impact on people's lives and the lives of the immediate community.
#E.g. A charity might choose to give 3D printers to developing countries to for the purpose of 3D printing prosthetic limbs. Social considerations/impacts of this might be...
##Allows increased social interaction within the community for the recipient.
##Might enable them to work, and in doing so be able to support their family financially.
##Possibility of the user being ostracised by the community if they feel that the use of prosthetics is culturally inappropriate.
##Could giving the recipient a sense of belonging and allowing them to do jobs within the community.
#E.g. Social issues that might be considered when developing a new outdoor barbeque might be...
##Increase in emotional health as cooking is considered by many as being a relaxing activity
##Increased interaction with friends, as people will often come together to eat
##BBQing is a relatively slow way to cook, so families will spend more time together while their meal is prepared
##Learning to BBQ well provides an opportunity to improve cooking skills
##There may be perceived health benefits of being outside stood up / grilling food rather than other cooking methods that are less active.
#Moral: Morals are the guiding principles that the engineers are working to; these can then be used to help frame ethical considerations (which are generally more practical). One way to consider these issues around a new product would be to consider the potential for someone do something that might be considered undesirable or illegal. Moral issues can also relate to the choice of materials and components and the manufacturing techniques used. Whilst these link into environmental issues, it can be immoral to make choices that disregard the negative impact the development of a product could have.
##With the 3D printed prosthetics scenario, the charity/company would argue that their aim is to help recipients of new limbs lead as normal life as possible.
##...but there is a risk that the printer could be used to produce other items (e.g. weapons) than those for which it is intended which they would need to be aware of.
##Kitchen knives can be used to prepare food, hunt and to create art by carving. They can also be used to commit crimes; a designer could look to avoid putting sharp points, to make knives less likely to be used for stabbing, for instance. The safety of the user is a moral responsibility of the designer.
#Cultural: Cultural issues can arise when a new product does not take into account the fact that a particular shape, colour or name can have very different meanings to different groups of people. Designers need to take care not to offend groups of people with different traditions and beliefs. For example, red is the colour for mourning in Africa whereas in China it is considered to be lucky. A careful choice of name, shape and colour can help promote a sense of unity between different global cultures and is particularly relevant if the product is to be sold in a country with a multi-cultural society. Some examples of moral considerations are...
#Ethical: Considering the impact of a product and whether it is morally correct to produce it. Ethics aim to answer the question, "What should I/we do?". A company/person's decisions are shaped by their values, principles, and purpose rather than unthinking habits, social conventions, or self-interest. Ethical considerations for the 3D printed prosthetics scenario above could be...
##Who pays for the prosthetics and what should the cost be?
##What is the product life span and who decides when it is changed?
##Who decides who is given one?
##At what age should they be given a prosthetic or it be taken away?
##What physiotherapy training will they get when receiving a prosthetic?
##Who will service the machines? Who will pay for repairs? The new filament?
#Environmental: Considering what the impacts (good and bad) will be as the result of taking a particular course of action. E.g. A new laptop involves sourcing new raw materials, transporting these to a factory (in lorries), energy-intensive processing to manufacture them, transport again on lorries then cargo containers then lorries to get them to the consumers who are to use them. Once in use, they will consume electrical energy throughout their life-span. At end-of-life, the various components (made from a variety of materials) risk ending up in landfill unless they can be recycled.
#Marketing: Design Engineers will also need to have regard as to what will need thinking about when it comes time to try and sell the product. Especially if the product isn't entirely new, but trying to find it's place in an existing market place. They will often seek to find a Unique Selling Point (USP) that makes the new product stand out from the competition.
#E.g. Marketing issues that might be considered when developing a new outdoor barbeque might be...
##Current culinary trends; gas or charcoal? Recently, there's increased interest in vegetarian/vegan diets. This could be used in marketing materials.
##Age range of the target audience.
##The size of the market along with their disposable income to spend on outdoor cooking. This will determine the best price point - is a cheap product most likely to sell, or a higher-priced model made with premium materials and which has lots of extra features?
##Understand the end goal of that market group with regards to BBQ-ing. What is the customer looking for? A quick and compact BBQ for occasional use, or something large designed to cater for large numbers and be used regularly?
##The life span of the BBQ, enabling it to be sold with a long warranty
##Any potential for accessories that be sold to compliment and extend the functionality of the BBQ (e.g. a pizza stone insert, rotisserie for cooking chickens, etc)

*Practice question: Discuss how the engineer’s responsibility extends beyond meeting the needs of the consumer and manufacturer.
*Practice question: Many UK-based companies manufacture their electronic products in other countries. Discuss the moral and/or ethical considerations of the globalisation of product manufacture.

===i. Consideration of lifecycle assessment (LCA) at all stages of a product’s life from raw material to disposal===
#Life cycle assessment is a methodology for assessing environmental impacts associated with all the stages of the life cycle of a commercial product, process, or service. For instance, in the case of a manufactured product, environmental impacts are assessed from raw material extraction and processing, through the product's manufacture, distribution and use, to the recycling or final disposal of the materials composing it.
##Acquisition of raw materials. All products or systems are created from raw materials. Consider the energy needed to extract oil, ores and timber. Look at the environmental impact of mining, deforestation and other issues related to the extraction of raw materials.
##Transporting raw materials. Consider how raw materials are transported nationally and internationally and examine the environmental impact of, for example, oil tanker disasters and pollution of the air by fuel emissions. Using electric vehicles is cleaner for road users but the generation of electricity to recharge vehicle batteries impacts on the environment.
##Processing raw materials. Consider the energy requirements and environmental effects of transforming raw materials by chemical or physical processing methods, for example, smelting and converting ores into usable materials, making polymers from oil.
##Manufacturing the product. Most products require machine processing. The manufacturing industry requires energy for machines, lighting, heating, etc. Textile products are often dyed during manufacture and the chemicals used may have an environmental impact. Often manufacturing doesn’t take place in the same area as material processing. Transporting materials, components and completed products for distribution involves considerable energy use and impacts on the environment.
##Using the product Some products require no further energy in usage. Many products, such as cars, washing machines and electrical items use significant amounts of energy. Some products, such as milk bottles, are reused; energy is used for cleaning before refilling. Detergents used may have an environmental impact.
##Disposal and recycling The collection of waste requires energy. Incineration centres use energy to dispose of waste, although many reclaim the energy created by incineration for useful purposes. Landfill systems may impact on the environment. Often recycling materials can use significant amounts of energy, but this will use less raw materials and conserve valuable natural resources.
===LCA Case Study: A fridge===
#An LCA for a domestic refrigerator might consider...
##Sourcing materials
###Energy needed to extract or recycle metals (steel, aluminium copper) and polymers – pollution and waste products.
###Manufacture of harmful/toxic refrigerant gasses – energy used, pollutants created.
###Manufacture of electronic components – chemicals extracted, energy, pollution.
##Product assembly
###Energy to press steel sheets into shape.
###Energy to form thermoplastics into shape.
###Manufacture of PCBs – energy, pollution
###Filling of refrigerant gas – risk of leaks.
###Product assembly in factory – energy for lighting/heating/machinery.
##Use
###Energy used during product use.
###Standby energy – product always on – considerable energy used over product lifetime.
###Energy rating of product.
###Improved thermal insulation of fridge to reduce energy requirements.
##End of life
###Risk of release of refrigerant gas into environment.
###Much of product could be recycled.
###Take back scheme by manufacturer.
###Risk of dumping in landfill.
###Gas can be safely removed and reused.
###Thermal insulation materials can be difficult to recycle.
###Steel can be recycled.
###Use of RoHS directive should reduce use of harmful materials
##Transport
###At all stages, transportation to move materials/parts/products around.
###Globalisation may involve huge distances being travelled around world.
###Fuel used, pollution produced.
###Bulky product so takes up a lot of space on transport vessel.
#You can read more about LCA in the textbook on page 70.
#You can see a real-life UK government-funded LCA for a plastic bag [https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/291023/scho0711buan-e-e.pdf here].

===ii. The source and origin of materials; and the ecological and social footprint of materials===
#LCA is an analysis of the overall impact of a new product throughout its life. This starts with compiling an inventory of relevant inputs and outputs, then evaluating the potential environmental impacts associated with those inputs and outputs and interpreting the results of the inventory and impact phases in relation to the objectives of the study.
#A product starts life as raw materials. Will these be taken from the ground (e.g. an iron ore mine) or take from recycled sources (e.g. recycled aluminium cans)? To dig new material from the ground will require considerable energy to drive plant machinery, to be refined into pure material and then will need shipping to the factory for production.
#Once built, products tend to consume additional resources. A car, for instance will need a constant stream of petrol or diesel – how much will depend on the engine capacity and how efficient it is. The car will also need new tyres, exhaust pipes and other predictable spare parts during its lifetime.
#At ‘end of life’, a product should be designed to be as recyclable as possible. A dishwasher can be dismantled into a set of mild and stainless steel parts which can be recycled; plastic parts can be sorted by plastic type and recycled and so on. By using materials which are known to be readily recyclable, the amount which goes to landfill can be minimised.
#Further reading: http://www.gdrc.org/uem/lca/lca-define.html

====Social Footprint====
#A company’s social footprint measures their effect on people and communities. Impacts can be both positive and negative.
#General examples include...
##Mining chemicals to make batteries can scar the environment.
##Building of factories to manufacture the product can have a negative impact on the landscape and environment.
##Building of factories to manufacture/distribute the product can lead to the creation of jobs in the local community.
#For a more specific example, a Textile factory can have a negative impact on communities in a variety of ways, including:
##Noise: Knitting and weaving manufacturing can be loud
##Waste disposal: this must be dealt with responsibly, especially any hazardous chemicals involved in cotton production.
##Child labour: the use of children in textile production remains a challenge for the clothing industry. Fibre dust - the dust released in textile processing can cause respiratory diseases for those in close proximity
##Worker’s rights: consideration needs to be given to the working conditions and pay of skilled and unskilled textile workers

====Ecological footprint====
#An ecological footprint measures the impact of human activity on the environment and how much natural resource is needed.
#Considering the use of timber (for example), the ecological footprint of this might include...
##Timber is a natural material which must be grown in forests, it can take up a substantial area of land to grow and be cultivated. Whilst the production of timber is nearly carbon neutral, energy is needed
to process and transport the timber to the market source.
##Whilst timbers can take several decades to grow, softwoods grow significantly faster than hardwoods. Therefore the use of softwoods in the construction and furniture industry produces a smaller ecological footprint.
##Throughout the production of products the waste material created from the various processes is often used for fuel or for the production of manufactured materials i.e. MDF.
#A growing population means that more raw products are needed to fulfil their textiles needs. Ecological impacts of textiles might include...
##Farming: Growing natural fibres such as cotton can lead to the degradation of soil. This can lead farmers to expand into other areas, destroying natural habitats. Cotton production and processing uses a lot of water, so rivers are often diverted, which has a severe impact on ecosystems such as the Indus Delta in Pakistan. Use of fertilisers and pesticides in cotton production can cause pollution in rivers and drinking water, causing health concerns for workers and local wildlife. Rearing animals, such as sheep or alpacas, for their wool also leads to expanding land requirements, which can cause deforestation and loss of habitat.
##Drilling: Drilling for oil to produce man-made synthetic textiles requires large storage areas and refining plants to change the oil into the materials needed for manufacturing. This process can be harmful to the environment. Oil is non-renewable and, when refined, produces fabrics that do not biodegrade easily.
#Whenever environmental impact is to be reduced, ‘the 6 Rs’ can be addressed to ensure an in-depth analysis has been done. The 6 Rs can be considered by the designer, the manufacturer and the consumer to reduce that negative impact on the environment.
##Reduce the number of the amount of energy or materials used during production
##Reuse products rather than buying new ones
##Recycle into other products
##Rethink production techniques to conserve power, water and fuel emissions, eg the development of more environmentally friendly colouring techniques results in less contaminated waste water.
##Refuse to buy products that have been aren’t ‘fair trade’ or that have excessive packaging.
##Repair broken products, reducing waste and saving energy on production.
#Further reading [http://www.gdrc.org/uem/lca/lca-define.html here]

===iii. The depletion and effects of using natural sources of energy and raw materials===
#As you will have been taught in science lessons, any finite resource which needs to be dug from the ground is classed as non-renewable. Products should be designed to use the minimum necessary amount of material and, as discussed above, should come from recycled sources as far as possible to make the most efficient use possible of available resource.
#By using renewable energy sources (E.g. Wind/solar/geothermal/tidal) wherever possible, the rate of drain of non-renewable sources can be limited. Unfortunately, renewable sources tend to be dependent on variables such as whether its windy, meaning that it is difficult to rely solely on these as the primary source of energy for the plant.

===iv. Planned obsolescence===
#Exam board definition: The process of designing products to go out of fashion or no longer function after a specific period of time
##E.g. A laptop computer will be designed with the currently available processor and memory chips but these will become outdated as the manufacturers are always driven to make faster processors and bigger memory. This means that the laptop’s power will start to look slow compared with newer models and the latest software may not run at all. The user will then need to buy a new laptop and, if they have had a good experience with a particular brand, they may wish to stay with that brand. A similar experience happens with mobile phones which generally have even more limited scope to be upgraded.
#Designing a product with an artificially limited useful life forces consumers to shorten the replacement cycle of their product and encourage future purchases of a new model. This can be achieved by ceasing production of machine-specific pods for a coffee machine, stopping the supply of spare parts for a specific vacuum cleaner, making a product difficult/impossible to repair, having ultra-trendy clothes which go out of fashion quickly, etc.
#Further reading [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_obsolescence here]

===v. Buying trends===
#Trends among the public can heavily influence engineers as the rush to create products to satisfy those looking for the ‘next big thing’. The appetite for electric vehicles demonstrated by Toyota with their Prius along with the launch of Tesla motors high-performance cars has led to all the main car manufacturers developing and launching their own EVs in order to bring about the next major revolution in the car industry – a sector which has now moving away from a century-old technology to embrace a more environmentally friendly approach to transport.

===environmental incentives and directives===
#Most World governments believe that global warming is a man-made problem, and that it is wise to lower carbon footprints. Governments can help modify the behaviour of the public by creating incentives to be more green.
#The UK Government incentivised the installation of solar panels on homes, offering generous feed-in rates to early adopters who could enjoy considerable savings on their energy bills.
#Building regulations can be changed to insist that new homes are insulated to a specific level, legislation can outlaw incandescent bulbs for homes to be replaced with more energy efficient LED ones and vacuum cleaners have had the maximum power of their motors capped.

===vi. Environmental incentives and directives===
#Environmental tax incentives encourage businesses to operate in a more environmentally friendly way. There are taxes and schemes for different types and size of business.
#Examples of these incentives are:
##you use a lot of energy because of the nature of your business, you could get tax relief for using more renewable energy sources.
##you’re a small business that doesn’t use much energy.
##you buy energy-efficient technology for your business.

==Environmental directives==
#Waste of electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) such as computers, TV-sets, fridges and cell phones is one the fastest growing waste streams in the EU, with some 9 million tonnes generated in 2005, and expected to grow to more than 12 million tonnes by 2020.
#WEEE is a complex mixture of materials and components that because of their hazardous content, and if not properly managed, can cause major environmental and health problems.
#Moreover, the production of modern electronics requires the use of scarce and expensive resources (e.g. around 10% of total gold worldwide is used for their production). To improve the environmental management of WEEE and to contribute to a circular economy and enhance resource efficiency the improvement of collection, treatment and recycling of electronics at the end of their life is essential.
#The RoHS Directive 2002/95/EC on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in such equipment aims to reduce the amount of harmful substances at source. This should ensure that they are not leached into the environment by equipment, some of which will, inevitably, not be recycled.

==Factors to consider when developing design solutions for manufacture==
#There are three different scales of production: one-off, batch and mass/continuous flow. Products will be engineered differently depending on how the product is to be made.

==3.2a Awareness of the responsibilities and principles of designing for manufacture (DFM), including:==
#There are four strands to DFM: Planning, Scale of Production, Repair and Maintenance & Product Life
===i. Planning for accuracy and efficiency through testing and prototyping===
#Prior to production, a large number of prototypes will be produced and experimented with. Each time a new sub-system is created, it can then be examined for ways to further improve it. Can the parts be made smaller? Are there empty spaces inside the housing (voids) which parts/wiring can be moved into? Can the internal parts be made thinner/lighter without affecting performance or durability? Thorough repeated testing can help answer these questions.
#In terms of 'Design for Manufacture', engineers might also...
##Minimise the number of parts
##Standardise the parts and materials, make maximum use of purchased parts, modular design and standard design features
##reduce the number of manufacturing operations
##Create modular parts assemblies
##Create methods for efficient joining
##Minimise any re-orientation of parts during assembly (this can be done by making parts symmetrical and avoiding the use of left-and right-handed parts).
#Preparation work for the design of the product. Where will the product be used? Is there anything that can be done to help it work better in that environment?
#Creating accurate plans will enable efficient installation and assembly either onsite (e.g. for a pumping station for a waterworks) or at the factory.
#Testing and prototyping of designs can take place prior to expensive manufacture costs.

===ii. Being aware of issues in relation to different scales of production===
#In a one-off product, only a single item is to be produced. Products made like this include catwalk clothes, wedding cakes, bespoke jewellery and prototypes for new products. Products made in this way are commonly made using hand-tools (e.g. drills, saws, screwdrivers, sheets of sandpaper), to allow a high quality finish. Items made this way will be inconsistent in their accuracy, given human margins of error.
#In a batch-production system, a specific number of items is made. In a bakery, a batch of 50 buns might be made, or a run of 1000 plastic buckets might be produced by injection moulding. Whether large or small, the defining characteristic is the finite number. In order to make batches which are consistent, jigs and formers are often used. Methods such as vacuum forming or laser-cutting may be deployed in order to facilitate the rapid production of parts. This may be coupled with some hand techniques in order to fabricate the finished product. An advantage of batch production setups is that they typically allow the flexibility to change the setup (e.g. re-design a part, change the product to be made) quickly.
#In mass (or continuous flow) production, the product in question is made all day, every day, non-stop (aside from scheduled breaks for maintenance). In order to achieve this and to maximise both output speed, accuracy and quality of the finished product, the majority of processes will be automated to the highest possible extent.
#Understanding and making reference to the fact that these will be one-off or small batch production. Items will be designed for a specific area and requirement.
#Cost implications of the above in the manufacture should be considered, to see if any of these can be reduced.
#Modular design may be appropriate, enabling larger production volume with lower costs if different elements can be made in different locations.
#It may be possible to outsource of the production of parts or the use of bought in components rather than making all parts from scratch to improve turnaround time/quality or reduce costs.

===iii. Designing for repair and maintenance===
#In commercial products (and many domestic ones), it is imperative that the designer recognises that their product will fail from time to time, necessitating parts being replaced in order to bring the device back online. In order to minimise the amount of time it takes to repair, designers can take several steps: Add removable access panels to the product, use generic parts (e.g. stepper motors) and ensuring that internal components can be easily removed (e.g. with bolts).
#Consideration should be made for the repair of the product once deployed.
##Parts should be easily replaced (it may be appropriate to use features like security screws to stop tampering).
##Parts should be readily available to reduce costs and ease availability and repair time scales.
##Parts should be tested so if they do fail, the chance of injuring the user is reduced. Materials considerations should be thought through for durability.
#Replaceable components. Over time some components will require replacing, for example chain, bearings or rubber parts will degrade. These parts should be easily replaced and be available.
#Can the product be easily repainted or cleaned?
#To ensure that the equipment maintains the safety standards as may be set out in British Standards or law.
#The equipment should be able to be maintained on a regular basis and should be designed for this ease of maintenance. Could be through simple design.
#Parts should be interchangeable where possible and/or use standardised components.

===iv. Designing with consideration of product life===
#Some products are designed to be ‘single-shot’, such as a promotional novelty light-up toy. Items such as this can be glued together with batteries sealed inside, as they only need to last a few hours. Other products such as cars will potentially run for several decades, and as such will need to be designed so that every component can be removed and replaced within a few hours.

===3.2b Awareness of product lifecycles that extend useful product life through planning for and consideration of maintenance, repair, upgrades, remanufacture and recycling systems===
#As discussed above, products’ lifespans will be considered as part of the design process. Maintenance and repair are discussed above. Creating upgrade options for products allows their useful life to be extended; this can be seen with the introduction of the VR headset for the PS4 console or upgrades to pre-existing London underground carriages in order to make them more attractive and comfortable.
#Remanufacturing is where an end-of-life product returns to the manufacturer. The product is then stripped down and re-build using new parts where necessary until the product is restored to an ‘as-new’ condition. These are then sold as remanufactured, often more cheaply than purchasing a new item. Examples include clutches for cars and Macbook Pro laptops from Apple. There is an environmental advantage to this too, as fewer new parts need to be manufactured to produce the ‘new’ part.

==3.2c Demonstrate an understanding of how environmental factors impact on:==
===i. Sourcing and processing raw materials into a workable form===

===ii. The disposal of waste, surplus materials and components, by-products of production===
#including pollution related to energy

===iii. Cost implications related to materials and process===
#Discussed above. Taking materials from the ground involves high cost at every turn: expensive plant machinery, manpower to operate it, the purchasing of the land to be mined, refinery costs to process ore into pure materials, the purchase/hire of lorries and people to drive them and then the cost of a factory (and workers) to manufacture the finished product. Once made, lorries/ships/planes are needed again to transport the good to shops for consumers.
#At an energy consumption level, digging ore from a quarry consumes large amounts of electricity and diesel/gas for machinery. Once extracted, ore needs transporting to a refinery. Heating ore to a molten state to separate pure metals requires further energy and then transporting the resulting material across the Planet to a factory for machining represents a further use of fossil fuels. Wherever possible, sourcing recycled materials that have already been obtained can limit further carbon emissions, although this also requires some processing and consumes energy.
#At end-of-life, the objective of the engineering team will be to make their products as close to 100% recyclable as possible. When manufacturers built products (especially in a mass production environment) in the past, production teams would ensure that sufficient component parts would be kept in stock to avoid running out and having to cease production. Unfortunately, this meant that when a product came to the end of its run, large numbers of bespoke component parts would be left which would be unusable for any future purpose, often needing to either go to landfill or to be recycled.

==3.2d Demonstrate an understanding of sustainability issues relating to industrial manufacture, including:==
===i. Fair trade and the Ethical Trade Initiative (ETI)===
*Fair Trade is both a movement and a certification system that aims to give farmers and workers in developing countries a fairer deal for their products. When you see the Fair Trade stamp on items like chocolate, it indicates that the producers have received a minimum, stable price for their goods as well as an additional 'Fair Trade Premium', which can be invested in local community projects such as schools or medical facilities. Beyond pricing, Fair Trade also promotes safe working conditions, protects workers' rights, and supports environmental sustainability. Read more about Fair trade [https://www.fairtrade.org.uk/ here].
*The Ethical Trade Initiative (ETI) is a leading alliance of companies, trade unions, and non-governmental organizations that promotes respect for workers’ rights around the globe. It focuses on improving conditions in global supply chains by encouraging companies to adopt and implement the ETI Base Code—an internationally recognized set of labour standards drawn from the International Labour Organization (ILO). Members of the ETI commit to working collaboratively, conducting regular assessments, and taking steps to address issues such as low wages, unsafe workplaces, and discrimination. Through these efforts, the ETI aims to foster more responsible business practices, ensuring that workers receive fair treatment and decent working conditions. Read more about the ETI [https://www.ethicaltrade.org/about-eti here]

===ii. Economic issues and globalisation===
#Globalisation refers to the increasing integration and interdependence of countries and people around the world. This process is driven by the flow of goods, services, information, and cultural influences across borders. It is made possible by advances in technology, transportation, and communication, which allow businesses to operate internationally and people to connect across long distances. Globalisation can lead to economic growth, wider access to products, and cultural exchange, but it also raises concerns about inequality, exploitation, and the loss of local traditions.

==iii. Material sustainability and optimisation, availability, recycling and conservation schemes, such as:==
#exploring the impact and use of eco-materials. Pages 2-3 of [http://www.d4s-sbs.org/MH.pdf this document] give a definition and examples.
#exploring how materials can be up-cycled. Up-cycling is the process of taking a product which would ordinarily be thrown away, and re-working it to create a new (wanted) product. Doing this extends the life of the product and prevents that item from going to landfill. Examples of this can be seen all over the web, and range in their complexity. Cutting the top off an old water bottle allows the bottom half to be used as a plant-pot or for storing pencils in, for instance. Others have taken old lego-bricks, drilled holes through them and threaded them to create jewellery, or cutting oil drums in half then adding steel legs to create barbeques.

==3.3a. Demonstrate an understanding of how to achieve an optimum use of materials and components, including:==

===i. The cost of materials and/or components===
#When designing new products, it is desirable to use the least amount of material possible to achieve the task at hand.
#Some materials are more costly than others – but why? Let’s consider woods and man-made boards (e.g. plywood, cardboard, MDF). MDF and chipboard are two of the cheapest man-made boards to purchase. These are made from roughly broken up chips of scrap wood (chipboard) or waste sawdust from working with wood products which are mixed up with glue and pressed into sheets. As they can be made from any scrap wood, they are very low-cost to manufacture.
#Pine (a softwood, popular for making furniture) is also cheap, and provides an attractive grain in its finished product. Pine grows very quickly and therefore new stocks of pine can be readily produced, reducing its cost. Oak (a hardwood), on the other hand grows very slowly, but produces a denser, stronger wood with an attractive colour. Because of this, it is more expensive to farm and this affects its price.

===ii. Stock sizes and forms available===
#Although materials are often chosen first, sometimes it is the shape and process which is the limiting factor. The availability and stock forms of materials also affect price, as commonly available forms are more cost effective than special sizes.
#They are made in quantity, so bulk purchasing can mean less transportation socts and this can also benefit the environment.

===iii. Sustainable production===
#When selecting machine screws to bolt two pieces of 5mm Acrylic together, the engineer might select an M3x12 machine screw (3mm diameter, 12mm long). This would give 2mm protruding from the back of the last piece of acrylic which an M3 nut can be threaded onto to hold the pieces together. If a longer machine screw were selected, the extra protruding material is effectively waste.
#When designing a light-weight box to store nails on a shelf in a workshop, the designer might elect to use MDF sheet (very low cost material; made from sawdust and urea formaldehyde). This is available in a number of industry-standard thicknesses: 3mm, 6mm, 9mm, 12mm, 18mm and 25mm. Any of these could be used, but the designer would probably select 3mm for this specific application – the box won’t have to carry a large amount of weight. If they were designing the shelf (and so needed more strength), 18mm or 25mm would be more appropriate.
#There are lots of different materials; you don’t need to have an encyclopaedic knowledge of these, but you should be able to identify a few hardwoods, softwoods, man-made boards, ferrous metals, non-ferrous metals, thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics. [[https://bournetoinvent.com/projects/a_level_de_theory/5.html][www.BourneToInvent.com]] has plenty on this in its theory section on resistant materials.

==Factors to consider when distributing products to markets?==
==3.4a. Understand the issues related to the effective and responsible distribution of products, including:==
===i. Cost effective distribution===
===ii. Environmental issues and energy requirements===
===iii. Social media and mobile technology===
===iv. Global production and delivery===
#When a business finds themselves shipping large amounts of a product, a strategy is needed to ensure that costs are kept down to ensure that profit is maximised. A number of approaches could be taken:
#A single, large distribution centre located in the middle of the region/country that the business most commonly serves. The business will only have a single set of heating, lighting, water, broadband, etc to pay for and a single set of employees to organise and care for. Stock all arrives at a single point, and logistics are straightforward. Unfortunately, if more customers start to appear further afield, transport costs start to increase. Additionally, if there is a problem at the centre (e.g. IT failure), the entire shipping operation ceases to function.
#Several smaller centres are another option (there’s an Ikea distribution centre in Peterborough, for instance). These provide some redundancy in the event of a system failure, but for a smaller business, each centre many not be able to hold as much stock as a larger one.
#Things become more complex if/when a company chooses to start shipping internationally. If a company is producing bulky items (e.g. a car), sending to another country means putting products into steel shipping containers and having them travel on a boat to their destination. To get an item to/from China takes around 40-50 days; customers may not be willing to wait that long, and so additional distribution centres may be needed. Alternatively, businesses may elect to set up additional factories around the World to make the product(s) in the country they’ll be sold in (e.g. Coke).
#Nice article on this [http://ibisinc.com/blog/10-critical-factors-to-a-cost-effective-distribution-strategy/ here].

== 3.4b. Demonstrate an understanding of the implications of intellectual property (IP), registered designs, registered trademarks, copyright, design rights and patents, in relation to ethics in design practice and consumer rights. ==
#Intellectual Property is something unique that someone physically creates (not merely an idea). A book isn’t IP, but the words within it are, for instance.
#[https://www.gov.uk/register-a-design Registered designs] allow designers to protect the look of a product to stop others from copying/stealing it. This gives the designer protection for 25 years.
#Trademarks allow a company to distinguish their product from others' brands and prevents others from using their brand (e.g. Coke®, Apple®). It’s designed to protect consumers from counterfeiters, allowing the owner to take legal action against anyone using it.
##Used by a company or individual to identify their brand.
##Trademarks can be in the form of a word, name, song, or symbol.
##Trademarks can be registered as a logo, slogan, domain name, shape or sound.
##To register a trademark it must be unique and distinctive.
##Trademarks must be fair and accurate.
##Trademarks must be morally acceptable.
##Must be registered with the Intellectual Property Office (IPO).
##Must be renewed every 10 years.
#[https://www.gov.uk/copyright Copyright] protects business’ work for 70 years, to prevent others from using it without permission. It is automatic (you don’t need to apply) when you create literary/dramatic work, software, web content and broadcasts. Unless they have your permission to do so, others can’t copy, sell your work or put it online.
##A set of exclusive rights given to creators of original ideas, information or other intellectual works.
##Copyright material can only be copied, used or recreated with the owner’s permission.
##Copyright protection is automatic and no registration is needed.
##The work is often marked with the © symbol, used alongside the creator’s name and the date.
##Work is still protected even without the © symbol.
##Copyright does not protect the ideas for a piece of work.
##Copyright lasts for 70 years for most types of written work.
##Photographs are copyrighted for 25 years.
#Registered Designs gives the designer ownership rights for the appearance of a product.
##Protects distinctive product shape, pattern or decoration.
##Protects distinctive visual features e.g. lines, contours, colours, materials.
##The design must be new and original.
##Must have a unique character, not resemble an existing design.
##Must be registered with the Intellectual Property Office (IPO).
##Must be renewed every 5 years.
#[https://www.gov.uk/design-right Design rights] automatically protect protect the creator of a design (unless a 3rd party commissions the work) for 10 years after the designs are created, to stop people copying your designs. While one does not need to register, doing to provides better protection.
##Design rights protect the configuration or shape of a product.
##They can be used to prevent copying of an original design without permission.
##Design rights do not protect the 2D aspects of the design, e.g. patterns.
##Design rights can be bought, sold or licensed.
##They stay in force for 10 years after first marketing of the product (or 15 years after creating the design).
##For the first 5 years, others are prevented from copying the design.
##For the remaining time the design is subject to a licence of right.
##Design rights only apply in the UK.
#Patents are expensive and difficult to obtain, but they provide a way to protect an invention. A patent-holder can take legal action against anyone who makes, uses or sells your invention without your permission. Large corporations like Adobe hold many patents for different parts of their products to ensure they have a competitive advantage.
##Granted by the government, they offer strong protection.
##Difficult to obtain, involving long, expensive, technical processes.
##Inventors must publicise all details of the invention.
##Patent lawyers are often employed to write a strong patent.
##Protect against copying the technical and functional aspects of a design.
##Can cover how a device works and what materials are used.
##Protect designs and inventions for 20 years.
##The invention must be new.
##It must have an inventive step that is not obvious to someone with technical knowledge.
##The invention must be capable of being made.

==3.5a. Understand wider issues relating to the selection of energy sources, storage, transmission and utilisation in order to select them appropriately for use.==
#Energy sources:
##Solar Energy.
##Wind Energy.
##Geothermal Energy.
##Hydrogen Energy.
##Tidal Energy.
##Wave Energy.
##Hydroelectric Energy.
##Biomass Energy.
#Click [here https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/different-energy-sources.php] to read more about these sources.

==Energy storage==
#Energy storage. Energy storage systems, also known as batteries or thermal stores, allow you to capture heat or electricity when it is readily available, typically from a renewables system, and save it until a time when it is useful to you.

==Energy transmission==
#Electric power transmission is the bulk movement of electrical energy from a generating site, such as a power plant, to an electrical substation. The interconnected lines which facilitate this movement are known as a transmission network.

==Energy utilisation==
#Energy utilization focuses on technologies that can lead to new and potentially more efficient ways of using electricity in residential, commercial and industrial settings—as well as in the transportation sector.

==How can skills and knowledge from other subjects areas, including mathematics and science, inform decisions in product design==
==3.6a. Demonstrate an understanding of the need to incorporate knowledge from other experts and subjects to inform design and manufacturing decisions, including the areas of science and mathematics==
#When creating ambitious new products, teams of engineers, computer scientists, physicists and mathematicians will be required to work together. Each brings a unique perspective to help develop the design to be optimal – the computer scientist might advise on a better smartphone user-interface or way to make the product work more intuitively. The physicist may be able to suggest a design modification to make an engine part more lightweight and stronger at the same time. The mathematician may be able to identify a way to make a 3D printer operate more rapidly by suggesting an improved algorithm.

==3.6b. Understand how undertaking primary and secondary research and being able to interpret technical data and information from specialist websites and publications supports design development==
#Primary research is that which the engineering team conduct themselves, such as an interview with users of an existing system or watching users of said system using their current system. This has the advantage of providing a ‘feel’ for the problem to be solved.
#Secondary research is the process of gathering data that has already been produced: Company reports, web searches or datasheets for electronics parts. This allows users to learn about new design approaches, technological developments or the release of new parts which may be useful in designing a new system.

==Practice Question==
#Designers and manufacturers should consider the social footprint and the ecological footprint of any materials they use.
##Describe how a social footprint is created by the manufacture of a product. [2]
##Describe the ecological footprint that results when using timber in products. [4]
##Discuss how a lifecycle assessment (LCA) would be carried out on a domestic refrigerator. Make reference to the following stages of the product’s life in your answer:
###manufacture;
###use;
###end of life. [8]
#DesEng AS Practice paper 1, Q3.

[[Design_Engineering|Design Engineering homepage]]

Model Past Paper solutions

2025-07-07T10:13:56Z

Stsb11: /* 2024 A-Level Papers */

==2016 Sample AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/b/b5/2018_AS_Question_and_Answer.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions and mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/c/c8/Design_Engineering_2016.pdf AS Paper] model solution

==2017 Sample papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/11/201x_Practice_Paper_B1_Questions.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/5/54/201x_Practice_Paper_B1_Answers.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme (pg. 21 onwards)
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/6/65/201x_Practice_Paper_B2_Questions.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/1d/201x_Practice_Paper_B2_Resources.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resources
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/34/201x_Practice_Paper_B2_Answers.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme (pg. 13 onwards)

==2018 Sample papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/2/29/201x_Practice_Paper_A1_Questions.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/0/0d/201x_Practice_Paper_A1_Answers.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/8/84/201x_Practice_Paper_A2_Questions.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/7/78/201x_Practice_Paper_A2_Resources.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resources
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/36/201x_Practice_Paper_A2_Answers.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2018 AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/f7/H004-01_Question_Paper_Jun18.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/36/H004_Mark_Scheme_June18.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2018 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/42/2018_Paper_1_Question_and_Answer.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions and mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/a/a9/2018_Paper_2_Question_and_Answer.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions and mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/b/b6/2018_Paper_2_Resources.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resources

==2019 AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/c/c0/2019_AS_Questions.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/a/a4/2019_AS_Answers.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2019 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/6/69/2019_DesEng_Paper_1_Questions.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/0/02/2019_DesEng_Paper_1_Answers.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/fc/Design_Engineering_2019_Paper_1.pdf Paper 1] model solution
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/b/b8/2019_DesEng_Paper_2_Questions.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/a/a4/2019_DesEng_Paper_2_Resources.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resources
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/7/73/2019_DesEng_Paper_2_Marks.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/9/9b/Design_Engineering_2019_Paper_2.pdf Paper 2] model solution

==2020 AS Paper==
*No AS paper was published in 2020 due to the Covid-19 pandemic.

==2020 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/e/e9/Paper_1.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/f2/H404_01_MS_Nov20.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/43/Paper_2.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/2/2d/Paper_2_Resource_booklet.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/11/H404_02_MS_Nov20.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2021 AS Paper==
*No AS paper was published in 2021 due to the Covid-19 pandemic.

==2021 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/ff/H404-01_QP_Oct21.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/1d/H404-01_MS_Oct21.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/d/df/H404-02_QP_Oct21.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/e/ef/H404-02_Resource_Booklet_Oct21.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/3c/H404-02_MS_Oct21.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2022 AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/4f/H004-01_QP_Jun22.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/41/H004-01_MS_Jun22.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2022 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/19/H404-01_QP_Jun22.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/5/54/H404-01_MS_Jun22.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/30/H404-02_QP_Jun22.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/6/62/H404-02_RB_Jun22.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/4b/H404-02_MS_Jun22.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2023 AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/e/ee/2023_AS_Paper.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/d/d1/2023_AS_Paper_Marks.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2023 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/5/51/Question_paper_June_2023_%28H40401%29.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/16/Mark_scheme_June_2023_%28H40401%29.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/a/a9/Question_paper_June_2023_%28H40402%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/3b/Resource_booklet_June_2023_%28H40402%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/3e/Mark_scheme_June_2023_%28H40402%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2024 AS Paper==
*No AS paper was produced for Summer 2024

==2024 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/9/95/Question_paper_June_2024_%28H404_01%29.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/9/90/Mark_scheme_June_2024_%28H404_01%29.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/e/e9/Question_paper_June_2024_%28H404_02%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/8/82/Resource_booklet_June_2024_%28H404_02%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/f0/Mark_scheme_June_2024_%28H404_02%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==Other items==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/f3/Feb_2020_Y12_PUPG.pdf Feb 2020 PUPG] exam paper

[[Design_Engineering|Design Engineering homepage]]

File:Resource booklet June 2024 (H404 02).pdf

2025-07-07T10:13:33Z

Stsb11:

Model Past Paper solutions

2025-07-07T10:12:02Z

Identifying Requirements

2025-07-01T15:30:14Z

Stsb11: /* Focus Groups */

==Section 1.1. Exploring Contexts==
#Before starting the course, you will come across many new words and technical terms.
#[https://www.electricalschool.org Electrical School] have created, and are continuing to develop, a glossary of electrical terms.
#What can be learnt by exploring contexts that design solutions are intended for?
##Understand that all design practice is context dependent and that investigations are required to identify what makes a context distinct in relation to:
###environment and surroundings
###user requirements
###economic and market considerations
###product opportunities

===Environment and surroundings===
#Environment and surroundings Products are designed for use in different environments
#A robot that welds car body panels together will be used exclusively in a factory.
#A photocopier might be designed for use in a School or office.
#A plug-in air freshener would be typically used in the home.
#When engineers and designers work to create new items, the context for where it is to be used will heavily influence the form of the finished product. A product that is to be used in an industrial environment (like a labelling machine) will be designed solely to perform the task it exists to do, in a safe way. If it has a human operator, any interface (e.g. display, buttons, etc) are large, clear and is intuitive to use as far as possible. Durability will heavily influence the design, as the product may be mission-critical and could cause production to slow or halt in the event of its failure. Industrial products will likely be engineered to make replacing defective parts as convenient as possible (e.g. through the addition of removable access panels).
#A product for an office must be designed to both serve its purpose, but to also give a look and feel in keeping with a professional environment. A common colour scheme is grey and silver, objects often have an ‘industrial’ look and ergonomics should be carefully considered to ensure that products are comfortable to use for extended periods. Microsoft produce an ergonomic keyboard, for example.
#Products designed for a home environment will commonly be more heavily influenced by the cosmetic finish of the product. For luxury goods, the materials used to finish the product will be of a higher quality, and may include varnished wood and premium plastics (like those seen in coffee machines). As young children are often present in home settings, safety considerations must include making sure that small fingers can’t make their way into areas that cause harm (e.g. think about how plug sockets are designed).
#For all products, safety must be the prime consideration, ensuring that there are no sharp edges, exposed wires or moving parts that could trap a body-part and cause injury.

===User Requirements===
#When a client approaches an engineering team to solve a problem, they will have a list of specific requirements which will need to be satisfied. This list is developed with the engineering team and is called a Design Specification. This may cover areas such as: Aesthetics, size, weight, materials, cost, durability, functionality (i.e. what it actually does), performance (how fast/accurately it does it) and power (e.g. batteries, solar, generator and mains AC).
#Once the product prototype has been built, the engineering team can test the product against the specification to demonstrate that they have designed a product or system which does exactly what the client asked for.

===Social, Economic and Market Considerations===
#When developing a product, it's context (i.e. how/where/when it will be used and by who) needs to be carefully considered in order to maximise the chance of it selling well.
#This topic comes up quite often in Paper 2 in the form of long-answer questions. You can practice this by thinking of everyday objects and coming up with examples for them.

====Social====
#The impact of the product on people. This can include the user/consumer of the product as well as any impact from others who might be affected by the use of the product itself.
##How could the product benefit people (including the customer themselves and perhaps others)? This could be a physical benefit like improved health or reduced risk of injury. It might offer time-saving benefits (e.g. a dishwasher) or improve emotional health or provide opportunities for increase social interaction. Other products might improve people's performance at work or school.
##Similarly, is there any potential risk of harm to others if the product is misused?
#E.g. A budget-range kitchen knife might enable university students to get into cooking fresh food in a way that they otherwise couldn't. This would lead to improved health and energy levels. They could use this to cook for others, improving opportunities for social interaction. Conversely, knifes could be purchased by criminals and used to injure others. Rounding the tips of the knife might reduce the probability of the knife being mis-used in this way.

====Economic====
#Anything relating to the financial side of the product. This can include financial opportunities for the customer themselves (like saving/making money), for the company selling the product or for wider society (e.g. If a piece of safety equipment saves lives, it'll reduce the burden on the NHS).
#All clients have a budget. At the outset of a new project, they will advise on what their development budget (how much they want to spend on manpower + prototypes to develop a mass-producible product) is, and will indicate the budget for building the actual new product (e.g. Should cost no more than £3 to manufacture per unit). For some product, the aim will be to produce something at the lowest possible price point (e.g. manufacturing budget A4 paper). In other cases where a luxury product is made, the aim will be to source the best possible quality (e.g. small-batch hand-made luxury wristwatches).
#The buyer of a new top-spec iPhone would be very different, and to ensure that the client feels they’re receiving value for money, the quality of the product would need to be of the highest standard available in order to justify the price tag that such an item could be expected to command.
#By understanding what the customer wants, the product can be better-designed to sell. You might consider...
##What is the customer's budget likely to be?
##Within this sector, what are the current trends?
##Is there a particular time of year that this should be released?
##Is there any scope for this product to have a wider benefit to the economy (e.g. Could it improve the Nation's health?)

====Market====
#Knowing the customer and the consumer - these aren't always the same person. A parent will buy a car seat for their child for instance - they're the customer, but their child is the consumer. You might consider...
##What's the age range that's being designed for? People often answer 'anyone' to this but that is seldom true.
##What's the size of the market you want to sell into? Nearly everyone has a smartphone, whereas not everyone has a running machine. Can research be done to understand how many people might be potential customers?
##What's the objective of the customer? People buy products to solve problems. They might buy a biro pen as they need to make notes reliably at the lowest possible cost; a car is perhaps more complex as different vehicles solve different problems.
##How long does the manufacturer/customer want the product to last? The answer isn't always 'forever'. Fast food packaging is a good example, needing to only last an hour or so and to then be easily recycled.
#A water purification unit for refugees in a third-world country would need to be built as cheaply as possible (to maximise the number of people who can have one), while ensuring that the product works consistently and safely. Any unnecessary flourishes (e.g. branding, nice-to-have features like an LED indicator) would need to be stripped away to the bare minimum amount of hardware to produce the desired result.

===Product Opportunities===
#Events happen around the World daily. These can often represent opportunities for entrepreneurs. Some are short-term (e.g. fidget spinners becoming cool) and others may be longer-term (e.g. combating global warming), necessitating new products to solve new problems. By looking for trends and following global events, designers and engineers can identify new, unsolved problems and create successful products to tackle them.

==Section 1.2. Stakeholder Analysis==
#What can be learnt by undertaking stakeholder analysis?
#Demonstrate an understanding of methods used for investigating stakeholder requirements, such as:
##user-centred design and stakeholder analysis
##SWOT analysis
##focus groups
##qualitative observations
##market research to identify gaps for new products or opportunities to update existing products.

===User Centred Stakeholder Analysis===
#When a new product is to be designed and built, in order for it to be successful, the target audience must be carefully considered. The different people/groups involved in a product are called stakeholders. In a School, stakeholders include students, teachers, support staff and governors.
#For a piece of industrial manufacturing equipment like a robot that places toppings on frozen pizzas in a factory, stakeholders can include managers, machine operatives, maintenance engineers and system programmers. Each of these people will have particular wants in terms of what the machine might do.
#The manager will likely want the robot to keep track of how many pizzas it tops each day, how much product falls off the pizza onto the floor (waste), how often it breaks down (costing the company money).
#The maintenance engineers will want to ensure that all the main parts can be removed in as short a time as possible, that they’re easy to reach and that the reliability of the machine is such that it seldom breaks down.
#The operative (where one is required) will want a machine which requires minimal human input to work, is comfortable to use, reduces the amount of repeated body movement to operate and is safe to use.
#Practice task: Make a stakeholder list for a new vacuum cleaner and suggest some stakeholder priorities that they might raise.

[[File:SWOT_analysis.png|400px|thumb|center|SWOT Analysis]]

#A SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) is a process developed in the 60’s by which as many considerations as possible are recorded under each of the SWOT headings. For a new smartphone, one might identify:
##Strength: The new design is ultra light-weight.
##Weakness: The software is the same as available on every other Android phone
##Opportunities: Has a unique new chip that can be marketed to unlock users doors at homes
##Threats: There are many other phone manufacturers who could release this feature first.
#You can read a little more about it here. LINK HERE

===Focus Groups===
#Focus groups are meetings in which the engineering team meet with different stakeholders to discuss the new product. They may produce a SWOT analysis collaboratively as part of this.
#Qualitative Observation. The process of design engineers watching a pre-existing system operating in a live environment (e.g. a factory in which frozen pizzas are manually topped). By watching the process, engineers can fully understand the steps in the existing system and consider different solutions to improve the current system.
#In the preliminary design stages when developing new product ideas, focus groups can help to develop a realistic design brief.
#They can help determine users needs and wants and lead to a product specification.
#Focus groups can help determine quantitative parameters. If developing an automated cat feeder this could include the range of meal sizes for different cats, or how often the pet needs feeding.
#Focus groups can evaluate proposed ideas and they can be asked for new ideas for design features or functionality.
#They can comment on styles and trends.
#In the later design development stages, user groups can be used to test prototype products, and evaluate their performance, and propose fixes or improvements.
#Evaluation of ergonomics and aesthetics.
#Testing with real users.
#Evaluation and development of user interface.
#Fault finding and identification of weaknesses in the prototype product.

===Enterprise===
#In the design context, the term 'enterprise' relates strongly to innovation. It captures brave and courageous decision-making, initiative, resourcefulness, making the most of opportunities to earn money, create or support new businesses to make a profit.
#Demonstrate an understanding of how enterprise can help drive the development of new product ideas through routes to innovation such as:
#In order to develop, release and market a new product, substantial initial financial capital will be required.

====Entrepreneur====
#Entrepreneurship has traditionally been defined as the process of designing, launching and running a new business, such as a start-up company, often offering a product or service. Entrepreneurs are the people behind such initiatives or start-ups.
#An entrepreneur who has a high level of self-belief in her product will need funding. They might elect to borrow their start-up capital from a bank in the form of a large loan. As the bank will be taking a considerable risk (i.e. if your product doesn’t take off, they’ll lose their money), they would typically expect that you would demonstrate your commitment by sharing the risk. This usually comes by you putting up your own money (if you have enough) or your home against the loan, so that if your business fails, your house can be sold to allow the bank to recover their money. The advantage of this approach is that if you are able to launch a new product, you’ll be able to enjoy all the profits after you’ve paid back your debt. The disadvantage of this is that should your idea not be a success, you risk losing your home and any other assets you may have.
#Entrepreneurs will take the risk in hope for profit with the sector. The entrepreneur may already have businesses in other areas similar to the area they are interested in breaking into.

====Commercial Partnerships====
#This could be a partnership with another person or company, to use their skills or expertise in the field. Doing so means sharing the risk with them and reducing the risk by using someone who has been in that field before.
#E.g. Apple teamed up with Nike to produce a version of the [https://www.apple.com/uk/apple-watch-nike/ Apple watch] targeted at runners.
#Read more: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_incubator

====Venture Capitalists (VCs)====
#A [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venture_capital VC] is similar to a start-up incubator.
#Some engineers might seek funding this way (similar to the TV show, Dragons’ Den). By ‘pitching’ your idea and presenting your business plan to a panel of experienced investors, you may be able to negotiate to obtain the funding you need in exchange for a (often considerable) percentage of your profits if/when your product takes off. Incubators are often able to supply experienced business people to offer advice as well as providing office space for start-ups.
#Using a venture capitalist to secure funding will remove some of the risk to the person wanting to start this new venture.
#In exchange for providing funding, the VC will own a percentage of the company.

====Crowd Funding Websites====
#Made popular through sites such as [https://www.Kickstarter.com Kickstarter.com]. Crowd funding works by the engineer creating a web page outlining the details of the product they intend to design and create.
#Investors to pay for different ‘rewards’, typically at considerably lower prices than the retail price of the product once launched to the general public.
#If the designer is able to reach a certain level of funding, the website transfers them the money pledged by the individual investors and they are then able to create and launch their product. If they don’t reach the intended funding level, the investors’ money is returned. This has the advantage of not requiring any up-front investment by the engineer and doesn’t expose the investor to as much risk. The disadvantage is that one may not reach their funding target, and that the inventor may not actually be able to deliver the product they’ve promised with the funding they raise if their calculations are incorrect.
#A risk-free way of getting funding for a project.
#Funding is usually given by people with similar interests as that of the project, thus creating a market when the project comes up for sale

===Exam style questions===
#Explain what is meant by ‘enterprise’ in the context of designing.
#Possible responses may include:
##A bold venture capturing innovation/courageous or bold decision making/initiative and resourcefulness (1).
#Plus one of the following...
##Making the most of an opportunity to earn money (1).
##Creating a new business (1).
##New and energetic undertakings (1).
##Breaking new ground (1).

#Describe two ways in which enterprise can help drive the development of new product ideas.
#Possible responses may include:
##Entrepreneurship (1) – the process of launching a new business, taking a financial risk in the hope of a good return (1).
##Ability to recover from setbacks (1), learning lessons along the way (1).
##Commercial partnerships (1), recognising the benefits of forging partnerships with others (1).
##Sharing ideas amongst other experts (1) to gain access to global technology (1).
##Venture capitalists – stakeholders who invest money into entrepreneurial companies (1) who then have a strong interest in the company’s success (1).
##Crowd funding – asking a large amount of people for a small amount of money (1), who may or may not then own a share in the company (1).

==Section 1.3. Designing Prototypes==
*How can usability be considered when designing prototypes?
===1.3a Learners should be able to analyse and evaluate factors that may need consideration in relation to the user interaction of a design solution, including:===
#the impact of a solution on a user’s lifestyle
#the ease of use and inclusivity of products
#ergonomic considerations and anthropometric data to support ease of use
#aesthetic considerations.
#Usability is the extent to which something is fit for purpose. By producing a new version of a kitchen knife which has a more comfortable grip, users would be able to use it to prepare food for longer before their hands tire. This can be considered from a number of stand-points.

===1.3ai Users lifestyles===
#An obvious objective of a product designed for a homeowner should be to provide a positive impact. This may be:
#To reduce the time spent on a domestic task to increase leisure time. The invention of washing machines freed up time that would be spent hand-washing.
#To provide a financial saving. An LED lightbulb will save money spent on electricity.
#To reduce the effort required to achieve a desired outcome. Remote controls for applicances like TVs remove the need to walk over to the set in order to change channel.
#To enable a disabled user to function more independently. Speaking clocks allow blind or partially sighted users to tell the time.
#To improve the environment of the home. Scented candles look attractive, and when lit release a pleasing fragrance.
#To improve security. High-spec burglar alarms call homeowners when they are triggered, notifying them of a problem.

===1.3aii Ease of use and inclusivity===
#Ease of use refers to how straightforward a product is for a user to learn to operate. Industry professionals often cite that aside from its cosmetic appearance, the Apple iPhone has been a runaway success largely because of how intuitive it is to use. Some systems (e.g. specialised industrial equipment) may be more complex by necessity, but the use of labels on control buttons, information engraved into panels and good-quality documentation, the ease of use can be increased.
#Inclusivity is about designing a product in such a way that people of all shapes, sizes and those with disabilities are able to use the product. Using the iPhone again as an example, Apple have invested extensively in providing a user interface that speaks to users as they run their fingers around the screen. As a result, blind users can make calls, send messages and take advantage of many features through these adaptations. In many new homes, light-switches are installed lower down, allowing a wheelchair user to reach them. High-rise buildings have lifts installed, so that people with reduced mobility can access the upper floors.

===1.3aiiiErgonomics and Anthropometrics===
#Ergonomics is the study of people’s efficiency in their working environment. Many products are marketed as being ‘ergonomically designed’. An ergonomic computer mouse will more naturally fit around a human hand; an ergonomic chair will have support for the lower back, and lots of options to adjust the height/tilt of different parts to make it more comfortable to sit in for extended periods.
#To design a product with ergonomics in mind, anthropometric data is used. This comes in the form of tables that can show figures on ‘typical’ human characteristics, like the height of US men over 20 year old. Data can also be obtained on grip strength in people’s hands, the mean average length of different body parts, range of movement of a head, etc. This can be useful for all manner of things, such as establishing how tightly a Coke bottle’s screw-top lid can be done up to minimize the loss of CO2 while ensuring that most children can open them without assistance.

===1.3aiv Aesthetic Considerations===
#This was touched on previously, but for a domestic or office product, if the item is physically attractive and stylistically in-keeping with current trends, a premium price can be charged.
#A good example of this is an electric kettle; these consist of a heating element, a temperature sensor and a switch. While incremental improvements have appeared such as better heating elements, the circuit inside is largely unchanged since the original 1891 design. Nonetheless, consumers have the ability to spend £6 on a kettle, or over £200.
#Both achieve the same outcome and share the same fundamental parts, but they look cosmetically different. It is worth remembering that while the profit margin is considerably greater for a ‘designer’ kettle, far fewer are sold. It is entirely possible that the manufacturer selling vastly greater number of their product for a lower profit would actually operate a more profitable overall business – this principal can be seen when comparing supermarkets like Aldi and Waitrose.

===1.3bi Anthropometric data to help define design parameters===
#Anthropometric Data Explained. Of course not all people are the same size. There will be huge differences between the heights, weights, and other dimensions due to: gender, age, diet, growth rate, genetic make up and other factors. Therefore the Anthropometric data needs to be organised in a specific way.
#Anthropometric data to help the design parameters associated with the human body.
[[File:anthropo_data.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#The table above could be used when designing a grip for a power tool, or when designing a keyboard.
#It is important to know the dimensions of a hand.

===1.3bii User comfort, control layout and software user-interface===
#The user experience is the core of the design process.
#Designers should put themselves in the shoe of the end consumer in order to achieve empathic design.
#In order to achieve success in the highly competitive market, the innovation should walk side by side with the deep understanding of the consumer interaction with both the physical and digital aspects of the products.
#This understanding should be achieved through the understanding of the user ergonomics and apply the principles of ergonomics in the design process.
#Ergonomics refer to designing products, services, systems and processes with social interaction in mind.
#The principles of ergonomics ensures that the design complement the consumer ability strengths for and strives to minimize the effort and limitations while using the product rather than forcing them to adapt.
#Ergonomics is widely implemented in different industries effecting the creative sector. Many designers believe ergonomics is only considered in product design. However, designers in different fields such as graphic and interactive design are required to consider ergonomics in their design projects. For example, the interactive designers should consider the user experience research as an essential stage in designing mobile applications, websites, and user interfaces.
#Principles of Ergonomics - In order to consider the ergonomics involved in different design projects, universal principles of ergonomics can be applied. While the principles below may not be applicable in some projects, the concepts can be adapted to both physical and digital projects.
##Neutral postures - The neutral posture refers to the human body aligned and balanced. The standard and balanced posture reduces the stress applied on muscles, tendons, nerves, and bones. The unbalanced posture for the human body is known as an “awkward posture”.
##Reduce Excessive force - The design for heavy products should consider reducing the excessive force needed or used to pull, push, or carry the product. Alternative solutions should be adapted to reduce the use of force such as using wheels to these products.
##Keep Things Easy to Reach - This principle is widely applied in both the physical and digital domains. The interaction with a specific product should be made easy. Consumers should reach the product easily and interact with it. For example, the control panel for dish washers should be reachable with the minimum amount of effort and time. In digital designs such as website and mobile application, users should be able to reach functions and navigation links easily through the usable implementation of the layout.
##Work in Power or Comfort Zone - The power zone refers to the zone where interacting with objects has the least amount of effort spent, it is also known as “hand shake zone”. It is the area between mi-thigh and mid-chest height. If the product is designed to be held, the designer should consider this position as the standard.
##Reduce Excessive motion - This principle aims to reduce the amount of motion spent while dealing with the design. The motion refers to any movement applied using the figures, wrist, or other parts of the body. One of the examples of applying this principle is the usage of screwdriver. The electric screwdriver is designed to reduce hand motion during usage.
##Reduce Static Load - Static load refers to the position where the person stays in the same position or holds something for a long time. This load create discomfort fatigue. If the product requires the consumer to stand still for a long time such as holding a specific tool, a fixture solution needs to be applied in order to eliminate the need to hold the object.
##Minimise Pressure Points - The pressure point refers to the point where the object is in contact with the consumer body during the usage of the product. For example, high chairs makes a pressure point between the user legs and table or desk. Therefore, designing the chair should allow users to modify the height and subsequently it can be used with any table height.
##Provide Clearance - The design for products and interior should provide a space for the user to move freely and avoid bumping into any of the objects. The same concept is applied in the digital domain. Placing the functions and elements in the website design or mobile application device should allow the user to move between the function smoothly and avoid any confusion such as clicking on wrong buttons.
##Enable Movement and Stretching - The product design should consider the user needs to move, exercise, and stretch. For example, seat design includes options to adjust the setting style. Tables that forces one to stand up or be in in one place may be modified in some places to avoid the a long setting time.
##Reduce Excessive Vibration - Vibration has a serious impact on consumer health. Contacting vibrating tools may cause hand-arm vibration syndrome (HAVS). Therefore, designing products that use motors or vibrate while holding should consider this principle. For example, the motor part can be separated from the tool itself and connected to it using a cord instead. This reduces the vibration on the tool.
##Provide Good Lighting Conditions - The overall work environment should be comfortable and allow users or designers to have good lighting, fresh air, and enough space. In offices where computer screens are installed, the design of the light systems should avoid reflections caused by the polished computer screens.

===Practice questions/Recap===
#Apart from the bridge crew (i.e. Captain and first officer), name two different stakeholder groups that might be identified when designing a new cruise ship.
#The design team are drafting specification points for different stakeholders. One point the bridge crew have identified is that it must be possible to reliably communicate with the different teams on the ship at all times. For each of the two stakeholder groups you identified above, describe one specification point they might suggest when designing the new ship.
#Describe the term, ‘focus group’.
#Mary has recently finished her A-levels and has designed a mobile phone charger with an integrated radio and torch. She wants to release it as a commercial product, but has never launched a product. Suggest a funding mechanism she could use, and justify your choice.
#A stationary company wants to create a pencil dispenser that can be put into school classrooms to allow students who have forgotten their pencil to take a replacement.
##The company want to set up a focus group.
##Identify a stakeholder group that might be invited.
##Suggest 3 user requirements that might be proposed in an initial meeting with the client, and justify your answers.

[[Design_Engineering|Design Engineering homepage]]

Manufacturing processes and techniques

2025-07-01T15:24:58Z

Stsb11: /* 7.5a Understanding the process that needs to be undertaken to ensure products meet legal requirements and are high quality. */

==Materials and processes used to make iterative models==

==7.1a Understand that 3D iterative models can be made from a range of materials and components to create block models and working prototypes to communicate and test ideas, moving parts and structural integrity==

==7.1b Demonstrate an understanding of simple processes that can be used to model ideas using hand tools and digital tools such as rapid prototyping, or digital simulation packages.==
[[File:solidworks_example.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Solidworks is an example of 3D software used to model working prototypes. This software can be used to digitally simulate models. Other software packages that can be used are Circuit Wizard.
[[File:circuit_wizard_example.gif|500px|thumb|center]]
#Materials and processes used to make final prototypes

==7.2a Understand how to select and safely use of common workshop tools, equipment and machinery to manipulate materials by methods of:==
===wasting/subtraction processes such as cutting, drilling, turning, milling===
#Cutting is the separation of a physical object, into two or more portions, through the application of an acutely directed force.
#Chip forming - sawing, drilling, milling, turning etc.
#Shearing - punching, stamping, scissoring.
#Abrading - grinding, lapping, polishing; water-jet.
#Heat - flame cutting, plasma cutting, laser cutting.
#Electrochemical - etching, electrical discharge machining (EDM).
#Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool, often multi-point. The bit is pressed against the work-piece and rotated at rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions per minute.
[[File:drilling_process.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Turning is a form of machining, a material removal process, which is used to create rotational parts by cutting away unwanted material. The turning process requires a turning machine or lathe, workpiece, fixture, and cutting tool.
<center><youtube>8EsAxOnzEms</youtube></center>
#Milling is the most common form of machining, a material removal process, which can create a variety of features on a part by cutting away the unwanted material. The milling process requires a milling machine, workpiece, fixture, and cutter.
<center><youtube>eJR-G-3Kvsk</youtube></center>
===addition processes such as soldering, brazing, welding, adhesives, fasteners===
#Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and then flowing a filler metal into the joint—the filler metal having a relatively low melting point. Soldering is used to form a permanent connection between electronic components.
[[File:soldering.jpeg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Brazing is a metal-joining process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a lower melting point than the adjoining metal.
[[File:brazing.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#There are many different types of welding.
[[File:welding_processes.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
#Click on the links below to read more about the main types of welding:
##[http://www.technologystudent.com/equip_flsh/acet1.html Gas welding]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_welding Arc welding]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_metal_arc_welding MIG welding]
#Adhesives may be used interchangeably with glue, cement, mucilage, or paste, and is any substance applied to one surface, or both surfaces, of two separate items that binds them together and resists their separation.
##To read up on different types of glues/adhesives, click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/joints/stglu1.htm this] link to go to www.technologystudent.com to read more on this.
#A fastener is a hardware device that mechanically joins or affixes two or more objects together. In general, fasteners are used to create non-permanent joints; that is, joints that can be removed or dismantled without damaging the joining components.

[[File:fastners.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

===deforming and reforming processes such as bending, vacuum forming===
#There are many different ways to bend different types of materials. Line bending is a common way of bending plastics. Click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/joints/desk17.htm this] link to read more about line bending.
#If you want to bend pipes or tubes, click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/equip_flsh/pipe1.html this] link to read more about it.
#Vacuum forming is a simplified version of thermoforming, where a sheet of plastic is heated to a forming temperature, stretched onto a single-surface mold, and forced against the mould by a vacuum. This process can be used to form plastic into permanent objects such as turnpike signs and protective covers. Normally draft angles are present in the design of the mould (a recommended minimum of 3°) to ease removal of the formed plastic part from the mold.
[[File:vaccuum_forming.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
[[File:vaccuum_forming_machine.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]
<center><youtube>BqV_jsxD0UA&t</youtube></center>

==7.2b Demonstrate an understanding of the role of computer-aided manufacture (CAM) and computer-aided engineering (CAE) to fabricate parts, such as:==
===additive manufacturing (3D printing) to fabricate a usable part===
#3D printing refers to processes in which material is joined or solidified under computer control to create a three-dimensional object, with material being added together (such as liquid molecules or powder grains being fused together). 3D printing is used in both rapid prototyping and additive manufacturing (AM). Objects can be of almost any shape or geometry and typically are produced using digital model data from a 3D model or another electronic data source such as an Additive Manufacturing File (AMF) file (usually in sequential layers). Stereolithography (STL) is one of the most common file types that is used for 3D printing. Thus, unlike material removed from a stock in the conventional machining process, 3D printing or AM builds a three-dimensional object from computer-aided design (CAD) model or AMF file, usually by successively adding material layer by layer.
<center><youtube>Gwro2HzxMgw&t</youtube></center>
===subtractive CNC manufacturing such as laser/plasma cutting, milling, turning and routing===
#To read more about the world of CNC machining, click on the links below.
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_cutting Laser cutting]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_cutting Plasma cutting]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milling_(machining) CNC milling]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turning CNC turning]
##[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNC_router CNC router]

==7.2c Demonstrate an understanding of measuring instruments and techniques used to ensure that products are manufactured accurately or within tolerances as appropriate.==
#There are many instruments that can be used to measure sizes of products. The 2 most common ones you will use are the:
##Steel rule
[[File:steel_rule.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

##Vernier Caliper
[[File:vernier.png|500px|thumb|center]]
#To read more about the vernier caliper, click on [http://www.technologystudent.com/equip1/vernier3.htm this] link to go to www.technologystudent.com to read how to use the measuring instrument.
#Other tools are available to measure products, such as a 'dial test indicator' or a 'micrometer'.

==7.2d Understand how the available forms, costs and working properties of materials contribute to the decisions about suitability of materials when developing and manufacturing their own products.==
#In every decision about manufacturing a product, the cost of the overall product is very important to a manufacturer as this will determine profits. When deciding on the materials to be used in a product, there are many decisions that will need to be made. First you would need to find as many suitable materials as possible, considering as many possibilities as you can, such as, corrosion resistance or longevity.
#Once you have selected suitable materials for your product, you will then need to consider cost, practicalities, such as manufacturing processes. This will need to be completed before deciding on the end material.
#Materials and processes used to make commercial products

==7.3a Demonstrate an understanding of the industrial processes and machinery used for manufacturing component parts in various materials, including:==
#polymer moulding methods, such as injection moulding, blow moulding, compression moulding and thermoforming.
<center><youtube>b1U9W4iNDiQ</youtube></center>
#Injection moulding is a manufacturing process for producing parts by injecting molten material into a mould. Injection moulding can be performed with a host of materials mainly including metals, (for which the process is called die-casting), glasses, elastomers, confections, and most commonly thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers. Material for the part is fed into a heated barrel, mixed (Using a helical shaped screw), and injected (Forced) into a mould cavity, where it cools and hardens to the configuration of the cavity. After a product is designed, usually by an industrial designer or an engineer, moulds are made by a mould-maker (or toolmaker) from metal, usually either steel or aluminium, and precision-machined to form the features of the desired part. Injection moulding is widely used for manufacturing a variety of parts, from the smallest components to entire body panels of cars. Advances in 3D printing technology, using photopolymers which do not melt during the injection moulding of some lower temperature thermoplastics, can be used for some simple injection moulds.
[[File:injection_moulding.png|500px|thumb|center]]

#Blow molding is a manufacturing process by which hollow plastic parts are formed: It is also used for forming glass bottles. In general, there are three main types of blow molding: extrusion blow molding, injection blow molding, and injection stretch blow molding. The blow molding process begins with melting down the plastic and forming it into a parison or in the case of injection and injection stretch blow moulding (ISB) a preform. The parison is a tube-like piece of plastic with a hole in one end through which compressed air can pass.

[[File:blow_molding.png|500px|thumb|center]]
<center><youtube>NE4c1gwzPb4</youtube></center>
#Extrusion moulding is a manufacturing process used to make pipes, hoses, drinking straws, curtain tracks, rods. Plastic granules melt into a liquid which is forced through a die, forming a long 'tube like' shape. The shape of the die determines the shape of the tube. The extrusion is then cooled and forms a solid shape. The tube may be printed upon, and cut at equal intervals. The pieces may be rolled for storage or packed together. Shapes that can result from extrusion include T-sections, U-sections, square sections, I-sections, L-sections and circular sections. Extrusion is similar to injection moulding except that a long continuous shape is produced. Learn more [https://www.technologystudent.com/equip1/plasextru1.html here].

#Compression Molding is a method of molding in which the moulding material, generally preheated, is first placed in an open, heated mould cavity. The mold is closed with a top force or plug member, pressure is applied to force the material into contact with all mold areas, while heat and pressure are maintained until the molding material has cured. The process employs thermosetting resins in a partially cured stage, either in the form of granules, putty-like masses, or preforms.

[[File:compression_molding.png|500px|thumb|center]]

#Thermoforming is a manufacturing process where a plastic sheet is heated to a pliable forming temperature, formed to a specific shape in a mold, and trimmed to create a usable product. The sheet, or "film" when referring to thinner gauges and certain material types, is heated in an oven to a high-enough temperature that permits it to be stretched into or onto a mold and cooled to a finished shape. Its simplified version is vacuum forming.

[[File:Thermoforming.gif|500px|thumb|center]]

===metal casting methods such as sand casting and die casting===
#Sand casting, also known as sand molded casting, is a metal casting process characterized by using sand as the mold material. The term "sand casting" can also refer to an object produced via the sand casting process. Sand castings are produced in specialized factories called foundries. Over 70% of all metal castings are produced via sand casting process.

[[File:sand_casting.png|500px|thumb|center]]

#Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterised by forcing molten metal under high pressure into a mould cavity. The mould cavity is created using two hardened tool steel dies which have been machined into shape and work similarly to an injection mould during the process. Most die castings are made from non-ferrous metals, specifically zinc, copper, aluminium, magnesium, lead, pewter and tin-based alloys. Depending on the type of metal being cast, a hot- or cold-chamber machine is used. The steps are...
##Moulds machined from HSS using a CNC milling machine.
##Molten aluminium alloy added to die casting machine.
##Molten aluminium forced into die by piston.
##Water cooling of casting.
##Split dies open and ejector pins eject the cast part.
##Finished part is 'fettled' (the rough edges are sanded/tidied) to remove flashing where the two halves of the mould came together.
##If required, the part can then be painted (e.g. by spraying or a dip-coating process)
[[File:die_casting.png|500px|thumb|center]]

===sheet metal forming methods using equipment such as punches, rollers, shears and stamping machines===
#Punching is a forming process that uses a punch press to force a tool, called a punch, through the workpiece to create a hole via shearing. Punching is applicable to a wide variety of materials that come in sheet form, including sheet metal, paper, vulcanized fibre and some forms of plastic sheet. The punch often passes through the work into a die. A scrap slug from the hole is deposited into the die in the process. Depending on the material being punched this slug may be recycled and reused or discarded.

[[File:punching.jpeg|500px|thumb|center]]

#Sheet metal rolling.
<center><youtube>1EGnHsYoKH0</youtube></center>

#Shearing, also known as die cutting, is a process which cuts stock without the formation of chips or the use of burning or melting. Strictly speaking, if the cutting blades are straight the process is called shearing; if the cutting blades are curved then they are shearing-type operations. The most commonly sheared materials are in the form of sheet metal or plates, however rods can also be sheared.

[[File:shear.jpg|500px|thumb|center]]

#Stamping (also known as pressing) is the process of placing flat sheet metal in either blank or coil form into a stamping press where a tool and die surface forms the metal into a net shape. Stamping includes a variety of sheet-metal forming manufacturing processes, such as punching using a machine press or stamping press, blanking, embossing, bending, flanging, and coining.

[[File:stamping.gif|500px|thumb|center]]

==7.3b Demonstrate an understanding of the industrial methods used for assembling electronic products, such as:==
===surface mount technology (SMT)===
#PCB assembly using solder stencils, pick-and-place machines and reflow soldering ovens.
#Watch the video below, this is a homemade machine, but it shows clearly the process of picking and placing surface mount (SMT) compinents to a PCB.

<center><youtube>CRSLbo_8nTQ</youtube></center>

#Below is a video explaining what reflow soldering is. Below that video is one explaining how the relow soldering oven work. It is selling a product, if you skip to 1:20, you will see how it works.
<center><youtube>eOUf59iut3s</youtube></center>
<center><youtube>Zw53kxy7yL0</youtube></center>

===CNC manufacturing such as laser/plasma cutting, milling, turning and routing===
#Watch the videos below to see the above CNC machines in action.
#CNC plasma cutting (the same as laser cutting)

<center><youtube>sKLdrHo2RWs</youtube></center>

#CNC milling machine.

'''Please note:''' the milling turns to CNC turning at 7:35 in the video below.

<center><youtube>7iKmTnZvA34</youtube></center>

#CNC turning machine.

<center><youtube>MwgobIVj4fU</youtube></center>

#CNC routing machine.

<center><youtube>txCMvRF4Bm8</youtube></center>

==7.3c Demonstrate an understanding of the benefits and flexibility of using computer-controlled machinery.==
===Automated material handling systems===
#Automated Materials Handling. Automated materials handling (AMH) refers to any automation that reduces or eliminates the need for humans to check-in, check-out, sort material, or to move totes and bins containing library material.
#Robot arms to stack, assemble, join and paint parts.
##Click [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v%3DgUWCljX7oa0 here] to watch a video of a robot being used to paint a car.
##Click [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v%3DLVtBjFUfFLE here] to watch a video of a robotic assembly line.

==7.3d Understand the necessity for manufacturers to optimise the use of materials and production processes.==
===Economical cutting and costing===

===Working to a budget through efficient manufacture===

==7.4a The methods used for manufacturing at different scales of production, including:==
===one-off, bespoke production===
#Job production, sometimes called jobbing or *one-off* production, involves producing custom work, such as a one-off product for a specific customer or a small batch of work in quantities usually less than those of mass-market products.

===Batch production===
#Batch production is a technique used in manufacturing, in which the object in question is created stage by stage over a series of workstations, and different batches of products are made.

===Mass production===
#Mass production is the manufacture of large quantities of standardized products, frequently utilizing assembly line technology. Mass production refers to the process of creating large numbers of similar products efficiently.

===lean manufacturing and just-in-time (JIT) methods===
#Lean manufacturing or lean production, often simply "lean", is a systematic method for waste minimization ("Muda") within a manufacturing system without sacrificing productivity. Lean also takes into account waste created through overburden ("Muri") and waste created through unevenness in work loads ("Mura"). Working from the perspective of the client who consumes a product or service, "value" is any action or process that a customer would be willing to pay for.
#Just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing, also known as just-in-time production or the Toyota Production System (TPS), is a methodology aimed primarily at reducing flow times within production system as well as response times from suppliers and to customers. Its origin and development was in Japan, largely in the 1960s and 1970s and particularly at Toyota.

===Fully automated manufacture===
#Lights out (manufacturing) Lights out or lights-out manufacturing is a manufacturing methodology (or philosophy), rather than a specific process. Factories that run lights out are fully automated and require no human presence on-site.
#Click [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lights_out_(manufacturing) here] to read more about 'lights out' manufacturing.

==7.4b Understanding how ICT and digital technologies are changing modern manufacturing.==
===Customised manufacture systems===
#In the custom manufacturing system, each item is produced by a single craftsperson, who works solely by hand or with the help of a machine. ... As a result, custom-manufactured products are of the highest quality but are also the most expensive products in the market.

===Rapid prototyping===
#Rapid prototyping is a group of techniques used to quickly fabricate a scale model of a physical part or assembly using three-dimensional computer aided design (CAD) data. Construction of the part or assembly is usually done using 3D printing or "additive layer manufacturing" technology.

===Additive and digital manufacture methods===
#Additive Manufacturing refers to a process by which digital 3D design data is used to build up a component in layers by depositing material. The term "3D printing" is increasingly used as a synonym for Additive Manufacturing. However, the latter is more accurate in that it describes a professional production technique which is clearly distinguished from conventional methods of material removal. Instead of milling a workpiece from solid block, for example, Additive Manufacturing builds up components layer by layer using materials which are available in fine powder form. A range of different metals, plastics and composite materials may be used.

===Stock control, monitoring logistics in industry===
#Stock control, monitoring logistics is the fact or process of ensuring that appropriate amounts of stock are maintained by a business, so as to be able to meet customer demand without delay while keeping the costs associated with holding stock to a minimum.

==7.5a Understanding the process that needs to be undertaken to ensure products meet legal requirements and are high quality.==
#Total Quality management (TQM) is the continual process of detecting and reducing or eliminating errors in manufacturing, streamlining supply chain management, improving quality and customer experience.
#In a TQM business model, all areas of a business and its suppliers use agreed specifications and quality control methods, and quality is the responsibility of everyone. This happens where a company has a desire to gain customer satisfaction, aiming to guarantee the manufacture of a quality product, every time.
#TQM seeks to improve both quality of product and efficiency in manufacture.
#This is implemented through three areas:

===Management===
#Reviewing and monitoring every stage of the process.
#ISO9000 certification process to appreciate quality in house and from suppliers.
#BS 7850 as a standard for effective management of human resources and materials.
#Poke-Yokes as a simple checking strategy to eliminate errors arising for relative labour-intensive tasks.
#Implementation of Kaizen as a method of continuous improvement as workers are best placed to suggest improvements to processes and feel empowered and wanted within their jobs.
#Employees encouraged to take pride in their work and are trained to perform their work optimally.

===Quality Assurance===
#Check for quality raw materials / components from suppliers.
#Checking every stage of the manufacturing process.
#Induction / ongoing training for staff to ensure they understand how to achieve quality.
#Checking against the specification to ensure customer requirements.

===Quality Control===
#Random Sampling of parts and components as they are being manufactured.
#Every employee is responsible for their quality standards.
#Tolerances in place to ensure upper and lower dimensional allowances.

==QA Vs QC==
#During the manufacturing process, QC and QA are vital to ensure a high-quality end product which is safe, and meets client expectation. In the areas such as aeronautical, automotive and medical industries, getting this right can have life or death implications.
#QC is like checking from time to time that your goldfish is still alive. With QA, you would also aim to make sure that the filter and pump work correctly, the water is the right temperature and is changed on schedule, and that everyone in the household knows when and how much to feed it.
#Quality Control is where a product is inspected or tested to ensure that it meets the requirements for the specific product. For instance, a car part may need to be made from aluminium, weight 54.5g and measure 3mm x 6mm. If out of 50 parts inspected, 49 match these requirements, but one weighs 55g and is 3mm x 6.5mm, that part would fail its quality control check. Quality Control does not ensure quality – it informs where it is missing.
#Quality Assurance seeks to look more closely at the process of making the product, seeks to find common areas where quality has the potential to slip and looks to address these so that manufactured parts fail less often. This can happen right through the design, development and manufacture stages.
#[http://www.iso9001consultant.com.au/QA.html Read more here]

==European and British standards==
#It comprises a set of questions and answers that summarizes the role of standards in the European Single Market. The information in this document has been prepared by BSI (British Standards Institution), which is appointed by the UK Government (HMG) to act as the UK National Standards Body (NSB).

[[Design_Engineering|Design Engineering homepage]]

Implications of wider issues

2025-07-01T15:19:59Z

Stsb11: /* iv. Planned obsolescence */

==Factors to consider whilst investigating design possibilities==
#Superficially, a manufacturer would like to be unencumbered at the design stage, with free reign to devise new products without limitation. Engineers have a wider social and environmental responsibility to take a broader and longer-term view, however.

==3.1a Understand how social, ethical and environmental issues have influenced and been impacted by past and present developments in design practice and thinking, including:==
===Social, Moral, Ethical and Environmental considerations for Design Engineers===
#Social: How the use of a material/manufacturing method/product could impact on people's lives and the lives of the immediate community.
#E.g. A charity might choose to give 3D printers to developing countries to for the purpose of 3D printing prosthetic limbs. Social considerations/impacts of this might be...
##Allows increased social interaction within the community for the recipient.
##Might enable them to work, and in doing so be able to support their family financially.
##Possibility of the user being ostracised by the community if they feel that the use of prosthetics is culturally inappropriate.
##Could giving the recipient a sense of belonging and allowing them to do jobs within the community.
#E.g. Social issues that might be considered when developing a new outdoor barbeque might be...
##Increase in emotional health as cooking is considered by many as being a relaxing activity
##Increased interaction with friends, as people will often come together to eat
##BBQing is a relatively slow way to cook, so families will spend more time together while their meal is prepared
##Learning to BBQ well provides an opportunity to improve cooking skills
##There may be perceived health benefits of being outside stood up / grilling food rather than other cooking methods that are less active.
#Moral: Morals are the guiding principles that the engineers are working to; these can then be used to help frame ethical considerations (which are generally more practical). One way to consider these issues around a new product would be to consider the potential for someone do something that might be considered undesirable or illegal. Moral issues can also relate to the choice of materials and components and the manufacturing techniques used. Whilst these link into environmental issues, it can be immoral to make choices that disregard the negative impact the development of a product could have.
##With the 3D printed prosthetics scenario, the charity/company would argue that their aim is to help recipients of new limbs lead as normal life as possible.
##...but there is a risk that the printer could be used to produce other items (e.g. weapons) than those for which it is intended which they would need to be aware of.
##Kitchen knives can be used to prepare food, hunt and to create art by carving. They can also be used to commit crimes; a designer could look to avoid putting sharp points, to make knives less likely to be used for stabbing, for instance. The safety of the user is a moral responsibility of the designer.
#Cultural: Cultural issues can arise when a new product does not take into account the fact that a particular shape, colour or name can have very different meanings to different groups of people. Designers need to take care not to offend groups of people with different traditions and beliefs. For example, red is the colour for mourning in Africa whereas in China it is considered to be lucky. A careful choice of name, shape and colour can help promote a sense of unity between different global cultures and is particularly relevant if the product is to be sold in a country with a multi-cultural society. Some examples of moral considerations are...
#Ethical: Considering the impact of a product and whether it is morally correct to produce it. Ethics aim to answer the question, "What should I/we do?". A company/person's decisions are shaped by their values, principles, and purpose rather than unthinking habits, social conventions, or self-interest. Ethical considerations for the 3D printed prosthetics scenario above could be...
##Who pays for the prosthetics and what should the cost be?
##What is the product life span and who decides when it is changed?
##Who decides who is given one?
##At what age should they be given a prosthetic or it be taken away?
##What physiotherapy training will they get when receiving a prosthetic?
##Who will service the machines? Who will pay for repairs? The new filament?
#Environmental: Considering what the impacts (good and bad) will be as the result of taking a particular course of action. E.g. A new laptop involves sourcing new raw materials, transporting these to a factory (in lorries), energy-intensive processing to manufacture them, transport again on lorries then cargo containers then lorries to get them to the consumers who are to use them. Once in use, they will consume electrical energy throughout their life-span. At end-of-life, the various components (made from a variety of materials) risk ending up in landfill unless they can be recycled.
#Marketing: Design Engineers will also need to have regard as to what will need thinking about when it comes time to try and sell the product. Especially if the product isn't entirely new, but trying to find it's place in an existing market place. They will often seek to find a Unique Selling Point (USP) that makes the new product stand out from the competition.
#E.g. Marketing issues that might be considered when developing a new outdoor barbeque might be...
##Current culinary trends; gas or charcoal? Recently, there's increased interest in vegetarian/vegan diets. This could be used in marketing materials.
##Age range of the target audience.
##The size of the market along with their disposable income to spend on outdoor cooking. This will determine the best price point - is a cheap product most likely to sell, or a higher-priced model made with premium materials and which has lots of extra features?
##Understand the end goal of that market group with regards to BBQ-ing. What is the customer looking for? A quick and compact BBQ for occasional use, or something large designed to cater for large numbers and be used regularly?
##The life span of the BBQ, enabling it to be sold with a long warranty
##Any potential for accessories that be sold to compliment and extend the functionality of the BBQ (e.g. a pizza stone insert, rotisserie for cooking chickens, etc)

*Practice question: Discuss how the engineer’s responsibility extends beyond meeting the needs of the consumer and manufacturer.
*Practice question: Many UK-based companies manufacture their electronic products in other countries. Discuss the moral and/or ethical considerations of the globalisation of product manufacture.

===i. Consideration of lifecycle assessment (LCA) at all stages of a product’s life from raw material to disposal===
#Life cycle assessment is a methodology for assessing environmental impacts associated with all the stages of the life cycle of a commercial product, process, or service. For instance, in the case of a manufactured product, environmental impacts are assessed from raw material extraction and processing, through the product's manufacture, distribution and use, to the recycling or final disposal of the materials composing it.
##Acquisition of raw materials. All products or systems are created from raw materials. Consider the energy needed to extract oil, ores and timber. Look at the environmental impact of mining, deforestation and other issues related to the extraction of raw materials.
##Transporting raw materials. Consider how raw materials are transported nationally and internationally and examine the environmental impact of, for example, oil tanker disasters and pollution of the air by fuel emissions. Using electric vehicles is cleaner for road users but the generation of electricity to recharge vehicle batteries impacts on the environment.
##Processing raw materials. Consider the energy requirements and environmental effects of transforming raw materials by chemical or physical processing methods, for example, smelting and converting ores into usable materials, making polymers from oil.
##Manufacturing the product. Most products require machine processing. The manufacturing industry requires energy for machines, lighting, heating, etc. Textile products are often dyed during manufacture and the chemicals used may have an environmental impact. Often manufacturing doesn’t take place in the same area as material processing. Transporting materials, components and completed products for distribution involves considerable energy use and impacts on the environment.
##Using the product Some products require no further energy in usage. Many products, such as cars, washing machines and electrical items use significant amounts of energy. Some products, such as milk bottles, are reused; energy is used for cleaning before refilling. Detergents used may have an environmental impact.
##Disposal and recycling The collection of waste requires energy. Incineration centres use energy to dispose of waste, although many reclaim the energy created by incineration for useful purposes. Landfill systems may impact on the environment. Often recycling materials can use significant amounts of energy, but this will use less raw materials and conserve valuable natural resources.
===LCA Case Study: A fridge===
#An LCA for a domestic refrigerator might consider...
##Sourcing materials
###Energy needed to extract or recycle metals (steel, aluminium copper) and polymers – pollution and waste products.
###Manufacture of harmful/toxic refrigerant gasses – energy used, pollutants created.
###Manufacture of electronic components – chemicals extracted, energy, pollution.
##Product assembly
###Energy to press steel sheets into shape.
###Energy to form thermoplastics into shape.
###Manufacture of PCBs – energy, pollution
###Filling of refrigerant gas – risk of leaks.
###Product assembly in factory – energy for lighting/heating/machinery.
##Use
###Energy used during product use.
###Standby energy – product always on – considerable energy used over product lifetime.
###Energy rating of product.
###Improved thermal insulation of fridge to reduce energy requirements.
##End of life
###Risk of release of refrigerant gas into environment.
###Much of product could be recycled.
###Take back scheme by manufacturer.
###Risk of dumping in landfill.
###Gas can be safely removed and reused.
###Thermal insulation materials can be difficult to recycle.
###Steel can be recycled.
###Use of RoHS directive should reduce use of harmful materials
##Transport
###At all stages, transportation to move materials/parts/products around.
###Globalisation may involve huge distances being travelled around world.
###Fuel used, pollution produced.
###Bulky product so takes up a lot of space on transport vessel.
#You can read more about LCA in the textbook on page 70.
#You can see a real-life UK government-funded LCA for a plastic bag [https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/291023/scho0711buan-e-e.pdf here].

===ii. The source and origin of materials; and the ecological and social footprint of materials===
#LCA is an analysis of the overall impact of a new product throughout its life. This starts with compiling an inventory of relevant inputs and outputs, then evaluating the potential environmental impacts associated with those inputs and outputs and interpreting the results of the inventory and impact phases in relation to the objectives of the study.
#A product starts life as raw materials. Will these be taken from the ground (e.g. an iron ore mine) or take from recycled sources (e.g. recycled aluminium cans)? To dig new material from the ground will require considerable energy to drive plant machinery, to be refined into pure material and then will need shipping to the factory for production.
#Once built, products tend to consume additional resources. A car, for instance will need a constant stream of petrol or diesel – how much will depend on the engine capacity and how efficient it is. The car will also need new tyres, exhaust pipes and other predictable spare parts during its lifetime.
#At ‘end of life’, a product should be designed to be as recyclable as possible. A dishwasher can be dismantled into a set of mild and stainless steel parts which can be recycled; plastic parts can be sorted by plastic type and recycled and so on. By using materials which are known to be readily recyclable, the amount which goes to landfill can be minimised.
#Further reading: http://www.gdrc.org/uem/lca/lca-define.html

====Social Footprint====
#A company’s social footprint measures their effect on people and communities. Impacts can be both positive and negative.
#General examples include...
##Mining chemicals to make batteries can scar the environment.
##Building of factories to manufacture the product can have a negative impact on the landscape and environment.
##Building of factories to manufacture/distribute the product can lead to the creation of jobs in the local community.
#For a more specific example, a Textile factory can have a negative impact on communities in a variety of ways, including:
##Noise: Knitting and weaving manufacturing can be loud
##Waste disposal: this must be dealt with responsibly, especially any hazardous chemicals involved in cotton production.
##Child labour: the use of children in textile production remains a challenge for the clothing industry. Fibre dust - the dust released in textile processing can cause respiratory diseases for those in close proximity
##Worker’s rights: consideration needs to be given to the working conditions and pay of skilled and unskilled textile workers

====Ecological footprint====
#An ecological footprint measures the impact of human activity on the environment and how much natural resource is needed.
#Considering the use of timber (for example), the ecological footprint of this might include...
##Timber is a natural material which must be grown in forests, it can take up a substantial area of land to grow and be cultivated. Whilst the production of timber is nearly carbon neutral, energy is needed
to process and transport the timber to the market source.
##Whilst timbers can take several decades to grow, softwoods grow significantly faster than hardwoods. Therefore the use of softwoods in the construction and furniture industry produces a smaller ecological footprint.
##Throughout the production of products the waste material created from the various processes is often used for fuel or for the production of manufactured materials i.e. MDF.
#A growing population means that more raw products are needed to fulfil their textiles needs. Ecological impacts of textiles might include...
##Farming: Growing natural fibres such as cotton can lead to the degradation of soil. This can lead farmers to expand into other areas, destroying natural habitats. Cotton production and processing uses a lot of water, so rivers are often diverted, which has a severe impact on ecosystems such as the Indus Delta in Pakistan. Use of fertilisers and pesticides in cotton production can cause pollution in rivers and drinking water, causing health concerns for workers and local wildlife. Rearing animals, such as sheep or alpacas, for their wool also leads to expanding land requirements, which can cause deforestation and loss of habitat.
##Drilling: Drilling for oil to produce man-made synthetic textiles requires large storage areas and refining plants to change the oil into the materials needed for manufacturing. This process can be harmful to the environment. Oil is non-renewable and, when refined, produces fabrics that do not biodegrade easily.
#Whenever environmental impact is to be reduced, ‘the 6 Rs’ can be addressed to ensure an in-depth analysis has been done. The 6 Rs can be considered by the designer, the manufacturer and the consumer to reduce that negative impact on the environment.
##Reduce the number of the amount of energy or materials used during production
##Reuse products rather than buying new ones
##Recycle into other products
##Rethink production techniques to conserve power, water and fuel emissions, eg the development of more environmentally friendly colouring techniques results in less contaminated waste water.
##Refuse to buy products that have been aren’t ‘fair trade’ or that have excessive packaging.
##Repair broken products, reducing waste and saving energy on production.
#Further reading [http://www.gdrc.org/uem/lca/lca-define.html here]

===iii. The depletion and effects of using natural sources of energy and raw materials===
#As you will have been taught in science lessons, any finite resource which needs to be dug from the ground is classed as non-renewable. Products should be designed to use the minimum necessary amount of material and, as discussed above, should come from recycled sources as far as possible to make the most efficient use possible of available resource.
#By using renewable energy sources (E.g. Wind/solar/geothermal/tidal) wherever possible, the rate of drain of non-renewable sources can be limited. Unfortunately, renewable sources tend to be dependent on variables such as whether its windy, meaning that it is difficult to rely solely on these as the primary source of energy for the plant.

===iv. Planned obsolescence===
#Exam board definition: The process of designing products to go out of fashion or no longer function after a specific period of time
##E.g. A laptop computer will be designed with the currently available processor and memory chips but these will become outdated as the manufacturers are always driven to make faster processors and bigger memory. This means that the laptop’s power will start to look slow compared with newer models and the latest software may not run at all. The user will then need to buy a new laptop and, if they have had a good experience with a particular brand, they may wish to stay with that brand. A similar experience happens with mobile phones which generally have even more limited scope to be upgraded.
#Designing a product with an artificially limited useful life forces consumers to shorten the replacement cycle of their product and encourage future purchases of a new model. This can be achieved by ceasing production of machine-specific pods for a coffee machine, stopping the supply of spare parts for a specific vacuum cleaner, making a product difficult/impossible to repair, having ultra-trendy clothes which go out of fashion quickly, etc.
#Further reading [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_obsolescence here]

===v. Buying trends===
#Trends among the public can heavily influence engineers as the rush to create products to satisfy those looking for the ‘next big thing’. The appetite for electric vehicles demonstrated by Toyota with their Prius along with the launch of Tesla motors high-performance cars has led to all the main car manufacturers developing and launching their own EVs in order to bring about the next major revolution in the car industry – a sector which has now moving away from a century-old technology to embrace a more environmentally friendly approach to transport.

===environmental incentives and directives===
#Most World governments believe that global warming is a man-made problem, and that it is wise to lower carbon footprints. Governments can help modify the behaviour of the public by creating incentives to be more green.
#The UK Government incentivised the installation of solar panels on homes, offering generous feed-in rates to early adopters who could enjoy considerable savings on their energy bills.
#Building regulations can be changed to insist that new homes are insulated to a specific level, legislation can outlaw incandescent bulbs for homes to be replaced with more energy efficient LED ones and vacuum cleaners have had the maximum power of their motors capped.

===vi. Environmental incentives and directives===
#Environmental tax incentives encourage businesses to operate in a more environmentally friendly way. There are taxes and schemes for different types and size of business.
#Examples of these incentives are:
##you use a lot of energy because of the nature of your business, you could get tax relief for using more renewable energy sources.
##you’re a small business that doesn’t use much energy.
##you buy energy-efficient technology for your business.

==Environmental directives==
#Waste of electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) such as computers, TV-sets, fridges and cell phones is one the fastest growing waste streams in the EU, with some 9 million tonnes generated in 2005, and expected to grow to more than 12 million tonnes by 2020.
#WEEE is a complex mixture of materials and components that because of their hazardous content, and if not properly managed, can cause major environmental and health problems.
#Moreover, the production of modern electronics requires the use of scarce and expensive resources (e.g. around 10% of total gold worldwide is used for their production). To improve the environmental management of WEEE and to contribute to a circular economy and enhance resource efficiency the improvement of collection, treatment and recycling of electronics at the end of their life is essential.
#The RoHS Directive 2002/95/EC on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in such equipment aims to reduce the amount of harmful substances at source. This should ensure that they are not leached into the environment by equipment, some of which will, inevitably, not be recycled.

==Factors to consider when developing design solutions for manufacture==
#There are three different scales of production: one-off, batch and mass/continuous flow. Products will be engineered differently depending on how the product is to be made.

==3.2a Awareness of the responsibilities and principles of designing for manufacture (DFM), including:==
===i. Planning for accuracy and efficiency through testing and prototyping===
#Prior to production, a large number of prototypes will be produced and experimented with. Each time a new sub-system is created, it can then be examined for ways to further improve it. Can the parts be made smaller? Are there empty spaces inside the housing (voids) which parts/wiring can be moved into? Can the internal parts be made thinner/lighter without affecting performance or durability? Thorough repeated testing can help answer these questions.
#In terms of 'Design for Manufacture', engineers might also...
##Minimise the number of parts
##Standardise the parts and materials, make maximum use of purchased parts, modular design and standard design features
##reduce the number of manufacturing operations
##Create modular parts assemblies
##Create methods for efficient joining
##Minimise any re-orientation of parts during assembly (this can be done by making parts symmetrical and avoiding the use of left-and right-handed parts).

===ii. Being aware of issues in relation to different scales of production===
#In a one-off product, only a single item is to be produced. Products made like this include catwalk clothes, wedding cakes, bespoke jewellery and prototypes for new products. Products made in this way are commonly made using hand-tools (e.g. drills, saws, screwdrivers, sheets of sandpaper), to allow a high quality finish. Items made this way will be inconsistent in their accuracy, given human margins of error.
#In a batch-production system, a specific number of items is made. In a bakery, a batch of 50 buns might be made, or a run of 1000 plastic buckets might be produced by injection moulding. Whether large or small, the defining characteristic is the finite number. In order to make batches which are consistent, jigs and formers are often used. Methods such as vacuum forming or laser-cutting may be deployed in order to facilitate the rapid production of parts. This may be coupled with some hand techniques in order to fabricate the finished product. An advantage of batch production setups is that they typically allow the flexibility to change the setup (e.g. re-design a part, change the product to be made) quickly.
#In mass (or continuous flow) production, the product in question is made all day, every day, non-stop (aside from scheduled breaks for maintenance). In order to achieve this and to maximise both output speed, accuracy and quality of the finished product, the majority of processes will be automated to the highest possible extent.

===iii. Designing for repair and maintenance===
#In commercial products (and many domestic ones), it is imperative that the designer recognises that their product will fail from time to time, necessitating parts being replaced in order to bring the device back online. In order to minimise the amount of time it takes to repair, designers can take several steps: Add removable access panels to the product, use generic parts (e.g. stepper motors) and ensuring that internal components can be easily removed (e.g. with bolts).

===iv. Designing with consideration of product life===
#Some products are designed to be ‘single-shot’, such as a promotional novelty light-up toy. Items such as this can be glued together with batteries sealed inside, as they only need to last a few hours. Other products such as cars will potentially run for several decades, and as such will need to be designed so that every component can be removed and replaced within a few hours.

===3.2b Awareness of product lifecycles that extend useful product life through planning for and consideration of maintenance, repair, upgrades, remanufacture and recycling systems===
#As discussed above, products’ lifespans will be considered as part of the design process. Maintenance and repair are discussed above. Creating upgrade options for products allows their useful life to be extended; this can be seen with the introduction of the VR headset for the PS4 console or upgrades to pre-existing London underground carriages in order to make them more attractive and comfortable.
#Remanufacturing is where an end-of-life product returns to the manufacturer. The product is then stripped down and re-build using new parts where necessary until the product is restored to an ‘as-new’ condition. These are then sold as remanufactured, often more cheaply than purchasing a new item. Examples include clutches for cars and Macbook Pro laptops from Apple. There is an environmental advantage to this too, as fewer new parts need to be manufactured to produce the ‘new’ part.

==3.2c Demonstrate an understanding of how environmental factors impact on:==
===i. Sourcing and processing raw materials into a workable form===

===ii. The disposal of waste, surplus materials and components, by-products of production===
#including pollution related to energy

===iii. Cost implications related to materials and process===
#Discussed above. Taking materials from the ground involves high cost at every turn: expensive plant machinery, manpower to operate it, the purchasing of the land to be mined, refinery costs to process ore into pure materials, the purchase/hire of lorries and people to drive them and then the cost of a factory (and workers) to manufacture the finished product. Once made, lorries/ships/planes are needed again to transport the good to shops for consumers.
#At an energy consumption level, digging ore from a quarry consumes large amounts of electricity and diesel/gas for machinery. Once extracted, ore needs transporting to a refinery. Heating ore to a molten state to separate pure metals requires further energy and then transporting the resulting material across the Planet to a factory for machining represents a further use of fossil fuels. Wherever possible, sourcing recycled materials that have already been obtained can limit further carbon emissions, although this also requires some processing and consumes energy.
#At end-of-life, the objective of the engineering team will be to make their products as close to 100% recyclable as possible. When manufacturers built products (especially in a mass production environment) in the past, production teams would ensure that sufficient component parts would be kept in stock to avoid running out and having to cease production. Unfortunately, this meant that when a product came to the end of its run, large numbers of bespoke component parts would be left which would be unusable for any future purpose, often needing to either go to landfill or to be recycled.

==3.2d Demonstrate an understanding of sustainability issues relating to industrial manufacture, including:==
===i. Fair trade and the Ethical Trade Initiative (ETI)===
*Fair Trade is both a movement and a certification system that aims to give farmers and workers in developing countries a fairer deal for their products. When you see the Fair Trade stamp on items like chocolate, it indicates that the producers have received a minimum, stable price for their goods as well as an additional 'Fair Trade Premium', which can be invested in local community projects such as schools or medical facilities. Beyond pricing, Fair Trade also promotes safe working conditions, protects workers' rights, and supports environmental sustainability. Read more about Fair trade [https://www.fairtrade.org.uk/ here].
*The Ethical Trade Initiative (ETI) is a leading alliance of companies, trade unions, and non-governmental organizations that promotes respect for workers’ rights around the globe. It focuses on improving conditions in global supply chains by encouraging companies to adopt and implement the ETI Base Code—an internationally recognized set of labour standards drawn from the International Labour Organization (ILO). Members of the ETI commit to working collaboratively, conducting regular assessments, and taking steps to address issues such as low wages, unsafe workplaces, and discrimination. Through these efforts, the ETI aims to foster more responsible business practices, ensuring that workers receive fair treatment and decent working conditions. Read more about the ETI [https://www.ethicaltrade.org/about-eti here]

===ii. Economic issues and globalisation===
#Globalisation refers to the increasing integration and interdependence of countries and people around the world. This process is driven by the flow of goods, services, information, and cultural influences across borders. It is made possible by advances in technology, transportation, and communication, which allow businesses to operate internationally and people to connect across long distances. Globalisation can lead to economic growth, wider access to products, and cultural exchange, but it also raises concerns about inequality, exploitation, and the loss of local traditions.

==iii. Material sustainability and optimisation, availability, recycling and conservation schemes, such as:==
#exploring the impact and use of eco-materials. Pages 2-3 of [http://www.d4s-sbs.org/MH.pdf this document] give a definition and examples.
#exploring how materials can be up-cycled. Up-cycling is the process of taking a product which would ordinarily be thrown away, and re-working it to create a new (wanted) product. Doing this extends the life of the product and prevents that item from going to landfill. Examples of this can be seen all over the web, and range in their complexity. Cutting the top off an old water bottle allows the bottom half to be used as a plant-pot or for storing pencils in, for instance. Others have taken old lego-bricks, drilled holes through them and threaded them to create jewellery, or cutting oil drums in half then adding steel legs to create barbeques.

==3.3a. Demonstrate an understanding of how to achieve an optimum use of materials and components, including:==

===i. The cost of materials and/or components===
#When designing new products, it is desirable to use the least amount of material possible to achieve the task at hand.
#Some materials are more costly than others – but why? Let’s consider woods and man-made boards (e.g. plywood, cardboard, MDF). MDF and chipboard are two of the cheapest man-made boards to purchase. These are made from roughly broken up chips of scrap wood (chipboard) or waste sawdust from working with wood products which are mixed up with glue and pressed into sheets. As they can be made from any scrap wood, they are very low-cost to manufacture.
#Pine (a softwood, popular for making furniture) is also cheap, and provides an attractive grain in its finished product. Pine grows very quickly and therefore new stocks of pine can be readily produced, reducing its cost. Oak (a hardwood), on the other hand grows very slowly, but produces a denser, stronger wood with an attractive colour. Because of this, it is more expensive to farm and this affects its price.

===ii. Stock sizes and forms available===
#Although materials are often chosen first, sometimes it is the shape and process which is the limiting factor. The availability and stock forms of materials also affect price, as commonly available forms are more cost effective than special sizes.
#They are made in quantity, so bulk purchasing can mean less transportation socts and this can also benefit the environment.

===iii. Sustainable production===
#When selecting machine screws to bolt two pieces of 5mm Acrylic together, the engineer might select an M3x12 machine screw (3mm diameter, 12mm long). This would give 2mm protruding from the back of the last piece of acrylic which an M3 nut can be threaded onto to hold the pieces together. If a longer machine screw were selected, the extra protruding material is effectively waste.
#When designing a light-weight box to store nails on a shelf in a workshop, the designer might elect to use MDF sheet (very low cost material; made from sawdust and urea formaldehyde). This is available in a number of industry-standard thicknesses: 3mm, 6mm, 9mm, 12mm, 18mm and 25mm. Any of these could be used, but the designer would probably select 3mm for this specific application – the box won’t have to carry a large amount of weight. If they were designing the shelf (and so needed more strength), 18mm or 25mm would be more appropriate.
#There are lots of different materials; you don’t need to have an encyclopaedic knowledge of these, but you should be able to identify a few hardwoods, softwoods, man-made boards, ferrous metals, non-ferrous metals, thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics. [[https://bournetoinvent.com/projects/a_level_de_theory/5.html][www.BourneToInvent.com]] has plenty on this in its theory section on resistant materials.

==Factors to consider when distributing products to markets?==
==3.4a. Understand the issues related to the effective and responsible distribution of products, including:==
===i. Cost effective distribution===
===ii. Environmental issues and energy requirements===
===iii. Social media and mobile technology===
===iv. Global production and delivery===
#When a business finds themselves shipping large amounts of a product, a strategy is needed to ensure that costs are kept down to ensure that profit is maximised. A number of approaches could be taken:
#A single, large distribution centre located in the middle of the region/country that the business most commonly serves. The business will only have a single set of heating, lighting, water, broadband, etc to pay for and a single set of employees to organise and care for. Stock all arrives at a single point, and logistics are straightforward. Unfortunately, if more customers start to appear further afield, transport costs start to increase. Additionally, if there is a problem at the centre (e.g. IT failure), the entire shipping operation ceases to function.
#Several smaller centres are another option (there’s an Ikea distribution centre in Peterborough, for instance). These provide some redundancy in the event of a system failure, but for a smaller business, each centre many not be able to hold as much stock as a larger one.
#Things become more complex if/when a company chooses to start shipping internationally. If a company is producing bulky items (e.g. a car), sending to another country means putting products into steel shipping containers and having them travel on a boat to their destination. To get an item to/from China takes around 40-50 days; customers may not be willing to wait that long, and so additional distribution centres may be needed. Alternatively, businesses may elect to set up additional factories around the World to make the product(s) in the country they’ll be sold in (e.g. Coke).
#Nice article on this [http://ibisinc.com/blog/10-critical-factors-to-a-cost-effective-distribution-strategy/ here].

== 3.4b. Demonstrate an understanding of the implications of intellectual property (IP), registered designs, registered trademarks, copyright, design rights and patents, in relation to ethics in design practice and consumer rights. ==
#Intellectual Property is something unique that someone physically creates (not merely an idea). A book isn’t IP, but the words within it are, for instance.
#[https://www.gov.uk/register-a-design Registered designs] allow designers to protect the look of a product to stop others from copying/stealing it. This gives the designer protection for 25 years.
#Trademarks allow a company to distinguish their product from others' brands and prevents others from using their brand (e.g. Coke®, Apple®). It’s designed to protect consumers from counterfeiters, allowing the owner to take legal action against anyone using it.
##Used by a company or individual to identify their brand.
##Trademarks can be in the form of a word, name, song, or symbol.
##Trademarks can be registered as a logo, slogan, domain name, shape or sound.
##To register a trademark it must be unique and distinctive.
##Trademarks must be fair and accurate.
##Trademarks must be morally acceptable.
##Must be registered with the Intellectual Property Office (IPO).
##Must be renewed every 10 years.
#[https://www.gov.uk/copyright Copyright] protects business’ work for 70 years, to prevent others from using it without permission. It is automatic (you don’t need to apply) when you create literary/dramatic work, software, web content and broadcasts. Unless they have your permission to do so, others can’t copy, sell your work or put it online.
##A set of exclusive rights given to creators of original ideas, information or other intellectual works.
##Copyright material can only be copied, used or recreated with the owner’s permission.
##Copyright protection is automatic and no registration is needed.
##The work is often marked with the © symbol, used alongside the creator’s name and the date.
##Work is still protected even without the © symbol.
##Copyright does not protect the ideas for a piece of work.
##Copyright lasts for 70 years for most types of written work.
##Photographs are copyrighted for 25 years.
#Registered Designs gives the designer ownership rights for the appearance of a product.
##Protects distinctive product shape, pattern or decoration.
##Protects distinctive visual features e.g. lines, contours, colours, materials.
##The design must be new and original.
##Must have a unique character, not resemble an existing design.
##Must be registered with the Intellectual Property Office (IPO).
##Must be renewed every 5 years.
#[https://www.gov.uk/design-right Design rights] automatically protect protect the creator of a design (unless a 3rd party commissions the work) for 10 years after the designs are created, to stop people copying your designs. While one does not need to register, doing to provides better protection.
##Design rights protect the configuration or shape of a product.
##They can be used to prevent copying of an original design without permission.
##Design rights do not protect the 2D aspects of the design, e.g. patterns.
##Design rights can be bought, sold or licensed.
##They stay in force for 10 years after first marketing of the product (or 15 years after creating the design).
##For the first 5 years, others are prevented from copying the design.
##For the remaining time the design is subject to a licence of right.
##Design rights only apply in the UK.
#Patents are expensive and difficult to obtain, but they provide a way to protect an invention. A patent-holder can take legal action against anyone who makes, uses or sells your invention without your permission. Large corporations like Adobe hold many patents for different parts of their products to ensure they have a competitive advantage.
##Granted by the government, they offer strong protection.
##Difficult to obtain, involving long, expensive, technical processes.
##Inventors must publicise all details of the invention.
##Patent lawyers are often employed to write a strong patent.
##Protect against copying the technical and functional aspects of a design.
##Can cover how a device works and what materials are used.
##Protect designs and inventions for 20 years.
##The invention must be new.
##It must have an inventive step that is not obvious to someone with technical knowledge.
##The invention must be capable of being made.

==3.5a. Understand wider issues relating to the selection of energy sources, storage, transmission and utilisation in order to select them appropriately for use.==
#Energy sources:
##Solar Energy.
##Wind Energy.
##Geothermal Energy.
##Hydrogen Energy.
##Tidal Energy.
##Wave Energy.
##Hydroelectric Energy.
##Biomass Energy.
#Click [here https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/different-energy-sources.php] to read more about these sources.

==Energy storage==
#Energy storage. Energy storage systems, also known as batteries or thermal stores, allow you to capture heat or electricity when it is readily available, typically from a renewables system, and save it until a time when it is useful to you.

==Energy transmission==
#Electric power transmission is the bulk movement of electrical energy from a generating site, such as a power plant, to an electrical substation. The interconnected lines which facilitate this movement are known as a transmission network.

==Energy utilisation==
#Energy utilization focuses on technologies that can lead to new and potentially more efficient ways of using electricity in residential, commercial and industrial settings—as well as in the transportation sector.

==How can skills and knowledge from other subjects areas, including mathematics and science, inform decisions in product design==
==3.6a. Demonstrate an understanding of the need to incorporate knowledge from other experts and subjects to inform design and manufacturing decisions, including the areas of science and mathematics==
#When creating ambitious new products, teams of engineers, computer scientists, physicists and mathematicians will be required to work together. Each brings a unique perspective to help develop the design to be optimal – the computer scientist might advise on a better smartphone user-interface or way to make the product work more intuitively. The physicist may be able to suggest a design modification to make an engine part more lightweight and stronger at the same time. The mathematician may be able to identify a way to make a 3D printer operate more rapidly by suggesting an improved algorithm.

==3.6b. Understand how undertaking primary and secondary research and being able to interpret technical data and information from specialist websites and publications supports design development==
#Primary research is that which the engineering team conduct themselves, such as an interview with users of an existing system or watching users of said system using their current system. This has the advantage of providing a ‘feel’ for the problem to be solved.
#Secondary research is the process of gathering data that has already been produced: Company reports, web searches or datasheets for electronics parts. This allows users to learn about new design approaches, technological developments or the release of new parts which may be useful in designing a new system.

==Practice Question==
#Designers and manufacturers should consider the social footprint and the ecological footprint of any materials they use.
##Describe how a social footprint is created by the manufacture of a product. [2]
##Describe the ecological footprint that results when using timber in products. [4]
##Discuss how a lifecycle assessment (LCA) would be carried out on a domestic refrigerator. Make reference to the following stages of the product’s life in your answer:
###manufacture;
###use;
###end of life. [8]
#DesEng AS Practice paper 1, Q3.

[[Design_Engineering|Design Engineering homepage]]

Implications of wider issues

2025-07-01T15:19:43Z

Stsb11: /* iv. Planned obsolescence */

==Factors to consider whilst investigating design possibilities==
#Superficially, a manufacturer would like to be unencumbered at the design stage, with free reign to devise new products without limitation. Engineers have a wider social and environmental responsibility to take a broader and longer-term view, however.

==3.1a Understand how social, ethical and environmental issues have influenced and been impacted by past and present developments in design practice and thinking, including:==
===Social, Moral, Ethical and Environmental considerations for Design Engineers===
#Social: How the use of a material/manufacturing method/product could impact on people's lives and the lives of the immediate community.
#E.g. A charity might choose to give 3D printers to developing countries to for the purpose of 3D printing prosthetic limbs. Social considerations/impacts of this might be...
##Allows increased social interaction within the community for the recipient.
##Might enable them to work, and in doing so be able to support their family financially.
##Possibility of the user being ostracised by the community if they feel that the use of prosthetics is culturally inappropriate.
##Could giving the recipient a sense of belonging and allowing them to do jobs within the community.
#E.g. Social issues that might be considered when developing a new outdoor barbeque might be...
##Increase in emotional health as cooking is considered by many as being a relaxing activity
##Increased interaction with friends, as people will often come together to eat
##BBQing is a relatively slow way to cook, so families will spend more time together while their meal is prepared
##Learning to BBQ well provides an opportunity to improve cooking skills
##There may be perceived health benefits of being outside stood up / grilling food rather than other cooking methods that are less active.
#Moral: Morals are the guiding principles that the engineers are working to; these can then be used to help frame ethical considerations (which are generally more practical). One way to consider these issues around a new product would be to consider the potential for someone do something that might be considered undesirable or illegal. Moral issues can also relate to the choice of materials and components and the manufacturing techniques used. Whilst these link into environmental issues, it can be immoral to make choices that disregard the negative impact the development of a product could have.
##With the 3D printed prosthetics scenario, the charity/company would argue that their aim is to help recipients of new limbs lead as normal life as possible.
##...but there is a risk that the printer could be used to produce other items (e.g. weapons) than those for which it is intended which they would need to be aware of.
##Kitchen knives can be used to prepare food, hunt and to create art by carving. They can also be used to commit crimes; a designer could look to avoid putting sharp points, to make knives less likely to be used for stabbing, for instance. The safety of the user is a moral responsibility of the designer.
#Cultural: Cultural issues can arise when a new product does not take into account the fact that a particular shape, colour or name can have very different meanings to different groups of people. Designers need to take care not to offend groups of people with different traditions and beliefs. For example, red is the colour for mourning in Africa whereas in China it is considered to be lucky. A careful choice of name, shape and colour can help promote a sense of unity between different global cultures and is particularly relevant if the product is to be sold in a country with a multi-cultural society. Some examples of moral considerations are...
#Ethical: Considering the impact of a product and whether it is morally correct to produce it. Ethics aim to answer the question, "What should I/we do?". A company/person's decisions are shaped by their values, principles, and purpose rather than unthinking habits, social conventions, or self-interest. Ethical considerations for the 3D printed prosthetics scenario above could be...
##Who pays for the prosthetics and what should the cost be?
##What is the product life span and who decides when it is changed?
##Who decides who is given one?
##At what age should they be given a prosthetic or it be taken away?
##What physiotherapy training will they get when receiving a prosthetic?
##Who will service the machines? Who will pay for repairs? The new filament?
#Environmental: Considering what the impacts (good and bad) will be as the result of taking a particular course of action. E.g. A new laptop involves sourcing new raw materials, transporting these to a factory (in lorries), energy-intensive processing to manufacture them, transport again on lorries then cargo containers then lorries to get them to the consumers who are to use them. Once in use, they will consume electrical energy throughout their life-span. At end-of-life, the various components (made from a variety of materials) risk ending up in landfill unless they can be recycled.
#Marketing: Design Engineers will also need to have regard as to what will need thinking about when it comes time to try and sell the product. Especially if the product isn't entirely new, but trying to find it's place in an existing market place. They will often seek to find a Unique Selling Point (USP) that makes the new product stand out from the competition.
#E.g. Marketing issues that might be considered when developing a new outdoor barbeque might be...
##Current culinary trends; gas or charcoal? Recently, there's increased interest in vegetarian/vegan diets. This could be used in marketing materials.
##Age range of the target audience.
##The size of the market along with their disposable income to spend on outdoor cooking. This will determine the best price point - is a cheap product most likely to sell, or a higher-priced model made with premium materials and which has lots of extra features?
##Understand the end goal of that market group with regards to BBQ-ing. What is the customer looking for? A quick and compact BBQ for occasional use, or something large designed to cater for large numbers and be used regularly?
##The life span of the BBQ, enabling it to be sold with a long warranty
##Any potential for accessories that be sold to compliment and extend the functionality of the BBQ (e.g. a pizza stone insert, rotisserie for cooking chickens, etc)

*Practice question: Discuss how the engineer’s responsibility extends beyond meeting the needs of the consumer and manufacturer.
*Practice question: Many UK-based companies manufacture their electronic products in other countries. Discuss the moral and/or ethical considerations of the globalisation of product manufacture.

===i. Consideration of lifecycle assessment (LCA) at all stages of a product’s life from raw material to disposal===
#Life cycle assessment is a methodology for assessing environmental impacts associated with all the stages of the life cycle of a commercial product, process, or service. For instance, in the case of a manufactured product, environmental impacts are assessed from raw material extraction and processing, through the product's manufacture, distribution and use, to the recycling or final disposal of the materials composing it.
##Acquisition of raw materials. All products or systems are created from raw materials. Consider the energy needed to extract oil, ores and timber. Look at the environmental impact of mining, deforestation and other issues related to the extraction of raw materials.
##Transporting raw materials. Consider how raw materials are transported nationally and internationally and examine the environmental impact of, for example, oil tanker disasters and pollution of the air by fuel emissions. Using electric vehicles is cleaner for road users but the generation of electricity to recharge vehicle batteries impacts on the environment.
##Processing raw materials. Consider the energy requirements and environmental effects of transforming raw materials by chemical or physical processing methods, for example, smelting and converting ores into usable materials, making polymers from oil.
##Manufacturing the product. Most products require machine processing. The manufacturing industry requires energy for machines, lighting, heating, etc. Textile products are often dyed during manufacture and the chemicals used may have an environmental impact. Often manufacturing doesn’t take place in the same area as material processing. Transporting materials, components and completed products for distribution involves considerable energy use and impacts on the environment.
##Using the product Some products require no further energy in usage. Many products, such as cars, washing machines and electrical items use significant amounts of energy. Some products, such as milk bottles, are reused; energy is used for cleaning before refilling. Detergents used may have an environmental impact.
##Disposal and recycling The collection of waste requires energy. Incineration centres use energy to dispose of waste, although many reclaim the energy created by incineration for useful purposes. Landfill systems may impact on the environment. Often recycling materials can use significant amounts of energy, but this will use less raw materials and conserve valuable natural resources.
===LCA Case Study: A fridge===
#An LCA for a domestic refrigerator might consider...
##Sourcing materials
###Energy needed to extract or recycle metals (steel, aluminium copper) and polymers – pollution and waste products.
###Manufacture of harmful/toxic refrigerant gasses – energy used, pollutants created.
###Manufacture of electronic components – chemicals extracted, energy, pollution.
##Product assembly
###Energy to press steel sheets into shape.
###Energy to form thermoplastics into shape.
###Manufacture of PCBs – energy, pollution
###Filling of refrigerant gas – risk of leaks.
###Product assembly in factory – energy for lighting/heating/machinery.
##Use
###Energy used during product use.
###Standby energy – product always on – considerable energy used over product lifetime.
###Energy rating of product.
###Improved thermal insulation of fridge to reduce energy requirements.
##End of life
###Risk of release of refrigerant gas into environment.
###Much of product could be recycled.
###Take back scheme by manufacturer.
###Risk of dumping in landfill.
###Gas can be safely removed and reused.
###Thermal insulation materials can be difficult to recycle.
###Steel can be recycled.
###Use of RoHS directive should reduce use of harmful materials
##Transport
###At all stages, transportation to move materials/parts/products around.
###Globalisation may involve huge distances being travelled around world.
###Fuel used, pollution produced.
###Bulky product so takes up a lot of space on transport vessel.
#You can read more about LCA in the textbook on page 70.
#You can see a real-life UK government-funded LCA for a plastic bag [https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/291023/scho0711buan-e-e.pdf here].

===ii. The source and origin of materials; and the ecological and social footprint of materials===
#LCA is an analysis of the overall impact of a new product throughout its life. This starts with compiling an inventory of relevant inputs and outputs, then evaluating the potential environmental impacts associated with those inputs and outputs and interpreting the results of the inventory and impact phases in relation to the objectives of the study.
#A product starts life as raw materials. Will these be taken from the ground (e.g. an iron ore mine) or take from recycled sources (e.g. recycled aluminium cans)? To dig new material from the ground will require considerable energy to drive plant machinery, to be refined into pure material and then will need shipping to the factory for production.
#Once built, products tend to consume additional resources. A car, for instance will need a constant stream of petrol or diesel – how much will depend on the engine capacity and how efficient it is. The car will also need new tyres, exhaust pipes and other predictable spare parts during its lifetime.
#At ‘end of life’, a product should be designed to be as recyclable as possible. A dishwasher can be dismantled into a set of mild and stainless steel parts which can be recycled; plastic parts can be sorted by plastic type and recycled and so on. By using materials which are known to be readily recyclable, the amount which goes to landfill can be minimised.
#Further reading: http://www.gdrc.org/uem/lca/lca-define.html

====Social Footprint====
#A company’s social footprint measures their effect on people and communities. Impacts can be both positive and negative.
#General examples include...
##Mining chemicals to make batteries can scar the environment.
##Building of factories to manufacture the product can have a negative impact on the landscape and environment.
##Building of factories to manufacture/distribute the product can lead to the creation of jobs in the local community.
#For a more specific example, a Textile factory can have a negative impact on communities in a variety of ways, including:
##Noise: Knitting and weaving manufacturing can be loud
##Waste disposal: this must be dealt with responsibly, especially any hazardous chemicals involved in cotton production.
##Child labour: the use of children in textile production remains a challenge for the clothing industry. Fibre dust - the dust released in textile processing can cause respiratory diseases for those in close proximity
##Worker’s rights: consideration needs to be given to the working conditions and pay of skilled and unskilled textile workers

====Ecological footprint====
#An ecological footprint measures the impact of human activity on the environment and how much natural resource is needed.
#Considering the use of timber (for example), the ecological footprint of this might include...
##Timber is a natural material which must be grown in forests, it can take up a substantial area of land to grow and be cultivated. Whilst the production of timber is nearly carbon neutral, energy is needed
to process and transport the timber to the market source.
##Whilst timbers can take several decades to grow, softwoods grow significantly faster than hardwoods. Therefore the use of softwoods in the construction and furniture industry produces a smaller ecological footprint.
##Throughout the production of products the waste material created from the various processes is often used for fuel or for the production of manufactured materials i.e. MDF.
#A growing population means that more raw products are needed to fulfil their textiles needs. Ecological impacts of textiles might include...
##Farming: Growing natural fibres such as cotton can lead to the degradation of soil. This can lead farmers to expand into other areas, destroying natural habitats. Cotton production and processing uses a lot of water, so rivers are often diverted, which has a severe impact on ecosystems such as the Indus Delta in Pakistan. Use of fertilisers and pesticides in cotton production can cause pollution in rivers and drinking water, causing health concerns for workers and local wildlife. Rearing animals, such as sheep or alpacas, for their wool also leads to expanding land requirements, which can cause deforestation and loss of habitat.
##Drilling: Drilling for oil to produce man-made synthetic textiles requires large storage areas and refining plants to change the oil into the materials needed for manufacturing. This process can be harmful to the environment. Oil is non-renewable and, when refined, produces fabrics that do not biodegrade easily.
#Whenever environmental impact is to be reduced, ‘the 6 Rs’ can be addressed to ensure an in-depth analysis has been done. The 6 Rs can be considered by the designer, the manufacturer and the consumer to reduce that negative impact on the environment.
##Reduce the number of the amount of energy or materials used during production
##Reuse products rather than buying new ones
##Recycle into other products
##Rethink production techniques to conserve power, water and fuel emissions, eg the development of more environmentally friendly colouring techniques results in less contaminated waste water.
##Refuse to buy products that have been aren’t ‘fair trade’ or that have excessive packaging.
##Repair broken products, reducing waste and saving energy on production.
#Further reading [http://www.gdrc.org/uem/lca/lca-define.html here]

===iii. The depletion and effects of using natural sources of energy and raw materials===
#As you will have been taught in science lessons, any finite resource which needs to be dug from the ground is classed as non-renewable. Products should be designed to use the minimum necessary amount of material and, as discussed above, should come from recycled sources as far as possible to make the most efficient use possible of available resource.
#By using renewable energy sources (E.g. Wind/solar/geothermal/tidal) wherever possible, the rate of drain of non-renewable sources can be limited. Unfortunately, renewable sources tend to be dependent on variables such as whether its windy, meaning that it is difficult to rely solely on these as the primary source of energy for the plant.

===iv. Planned obsolescence===
#Exam board definition: The process of designing products to go out of fashion or no longer function after a specific period of time
##E.g. A laptop computer will be designed with the currently available processor and memory chips but these will become outdated as the manufacturers are always driven to make faster processors and bigger memory. This means that the laptop’s power will start to look slow compared with newer models and the latest software may not run at all. The user will then need to buy a new laptop and, if they have had a good experience with a particular brand, they may
wish to stay with that brand. A similar experience happens with mobile phones which generally have even more limited scope to be upgraded.
#Designing a product with an artificially limited useful life forces consumers to shorten the replacement cycle of their product and encourage future purchases of a new model. This can be achieved by ceasing production of machine-specific pods for a coffee machine, stopping the supply of spare parts for a specific vacuum cleaner, making a product difficult/impossible to repair, having ultra-trendy clothes which go out of fashion quickly, etc.
#Further reading [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_obsolescence here]

===v. Buying trends===
#Trends among the public can heavily influence engineers as the rush to create products to satisfy those looking for the ‘next big thing’. The appetite for electric vehicles demonstrated by Toyota with their Prius along with the launch of Tesla motors high-performance cars has led to all the main car manufacturers developing and launching their own EVs in order to bring about the next major revolution in the car industry – a sector which has now moving away from a century-old technology to embrace a more environmentally friendly approach to transport.

===environmental incentives and directives===
#Most World governments believe that global warming is a man-made problem, and that it is wise to lower carbon footprints. Governments can help modify the behaviour of the public by creating incentives to be more green.
#The UK Government incentivised the installation of solar panels on homes, offering generous feed-in rates to early adopters who could enjoy considerable savings on their energy bills.
#Building regulations can be changed to insist that new homes are insulated to a specific level, legislation can outlaw incandescent bulbs for homes to be replaced with more energy efficient LED ones and vacuum cleaners have had the maximum power of their motors capped.

===vi. Environmental incentives and directives===
#Environmental tax incentives encourage businesses to operate in a more environmentally friendly way. There are taxes and schemes for different types and size of business.
#Examples of these incentives are:
##you use a lot of energy because of the nature of your business, you could get tax relief for using more renewable energy sources.
##you’re a small business that doesn’t use much energy.
##you buy energy-efficient technology for your business.

==Environmental directives==
#Waste of electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) such as computers, TV-sets, fridges and cell phones is one the fastest growing waste streams in the EU, with some 9 million tonnes generated in 2005, and expected to grow to more than 12 million tonnes by 2020.
#WEEE is a complex mixture of materials and components that because of their hazardous content, and if not properly managed, can cause major environmental and health problems.
#Moreover, the production of modern electronics requires the use of scarce and expensive resources (e.g. around 10% of total gold worldwide is used for their production). To improve the environmental management of WEEE and to contribute to a circular economy and enhance resource efficiency the improvement of collection, treatment and recycling of electronics at the end of their life is essential.
#The RoHS Directive 2002/95/EC on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in such equipment aims to reduce the amount of harmful substances at source. This should ensure that they are not leached into the environment by equipment, some of which will, inevitably, not be recycled.

==Factors to consider when developing design solutions for manufacture==
#There are three different scales of production: one-off, batch and mass/continuous flow. Products will be engineered differently depending on how the product is to be made.

==3.2a Awareness of the responsibilities and principles of designing for manufacture (DFM), including:==
===i. Planning for accuracy and efficiency through testing and prototyping===
#Prior to production, a large number of prototypes will be produced and experimented with. Each time a new sub-system is created, it can then be examined for ways to further improve it. Can the parts be made smaller? Are there empty spaces inside the housing (voids) which parts/wiring can be moved into? Can the internal parts be made thinner/lighter without affecting performance or durability? Thorough repeated testing can help answer these questions.
#In terms of 'Design for Manufacture', engineers might also...
##Minimise the number of parts
##Standardise the parts and materials, make maximum use of purchased parts, modular design and standard design features
##reduce the number of manufacturing operations
##Create modular parts assemblies
##Create methods for efficient joining
##Minimise any re-orientation of parts during assembly (this can be done by making parts symmetrical and avoiding the use of left-and right-handed parts).

===ii. Being aware of issues in relation to different scales of production===
#In a one-off product, only a single item is to be produced. Products made like this include catwalk clothes, wedding cakes, bespoke jewellery and prototypes for new products. Products made in this way are commonly made using hand-tools (e.g. drills, saws, screwdrivers, sheets of sandpaper), to allow a high quality finish. Items made this way will be inconsistent in their accuracy, given human margins of error.
#In a batch-production system, a specific number of items is made. In a bakery, a batch of 50 buns might be made, or a run of 1000 plastic buckets might be produced by injection moulding. Whether large or small, the defining characteristic is the finite number. In order to make batches which are consistent, jigs and formers are often used. Methods such as vacuum forming or laser-cutting may be deployed in order to facilitate the rapid production of parts. This may be coupled with some hand techniques in order to fabricate the finished product. An advantage of batch production setups is that they typically allow the flexibility to change the setup (e.g. re-design a part, change the product to be made) quickly.
#In mass (or continuous flow) production, the product in question is made all day, every day, non-stop (aside from scheduled breaks for maintenance). In order to achieve this and to maximise both output speed, accuracy and quality of the finished product, the majority of processes will be automated to the highest possible extent.

===iii. Designing for repair and maintenance===
#In commercial products (and many domestic ones), it is imperative that the designer recognises that their product will fail from time to time, necessitating parts being replaced in order to bring the device back online. In order to minimise the amount of time it takes to repair, designers can take several steps: Add removable access panels to the product, use generic parts (e.g. stepper motors) and ensuring that internal components can be easily removed (e.g. with bolts).

===iv. Designing with consideration of product life===
#Some products are designed to be ‘single-shot’, such as a promotional novelty light-up toy. Items such as this can be glued together with batteries sealed inside, as they only need to last a few hours. Other products such as cars will potentially run for several decades, and as such will need to be designed so that every component can be removed and replaced within a few hours.

===3.2b Awareness of product lifecycles that extend useful product life through planning for and consideration of maintenance, repair, upgrades, remanufacture and recycling systems===
#As discussed above, products’ lifespans will be considered as part of the design process. Maintenance and repair are discussed above. Creating upgrade options for products allows their useful life to be extended; this can be seen with the introduction of the VR headset for the PS4 console or upgrades to pre-existing London underground carriages in order to make them more attractive and comfortable.
#Remanufacturing is where an end-of-life product returns to the manufacturer. The product is then stripped down and re-build using new parts where necessary until the product is restored to an ‘as-new’ condition. These are then sold as remanufactured, often more cheaply than purchasing a new item. Examples include clutches for cars and Macbook Pro laptops from Apple. There is an environmental advantage to this too, as fewer new parts need to be manufactured to produce the ‘new’ part.

==3.2c Demonstrate an understanding of how environmental factors impact on:==
===i. Sourcing and processing raw materials into a workable form===

===ii. The disposal of waste, surplus materials and components, by-products of production===
#including pollution related to energy

===iii. Cost implications related to materials and process===
#Discussed above. Taking materials from the ground involves high cost at every turn: expensive plant machinery, manpower to operate it, the purchasing of the land to be mined, refinery costs to process ore into pure materials, the purchase/hire of lorries and people to drive them and then the cost of a factory (and workers) to manufacture the finished product. Once made, lorries/ships/planes are needed again to transport the good to shops for consumers.
#At an energy consumption level, digging ore from a quarry consumes large amounts of electricity and diesel/gas for machinery. Once extracted, ore needs transporting to a refinery. Heating ore to a molten state to separate pure metals requires further energy and then transporting the resulting material across the Planet to a factory for machining represents a further use of fossil fuels. Wherever possible, sourcing recycled materials that have already been obtained can limit further carbon emissions, although this also requires some processing and consumes energy.
#At end-of-life, the objective of the engineering team will be to make their products as close to 100% recyclable as possible. When manufacturers built products (especially in a mass production environment) in the past, production teams would ensure that sufficient component parts would be kept in stock to avoid running out and having to cease production. Unfortunately, this meant that when a product came to the end of its run, large numbers of bespoke component parts would be left which would be unusable for any future purpose, often needing to either go to landfill or to be recycled.

==3.2d Demonstrate an understanding of sustainability issues relating to industrial manufacture, including:==
===i. Fair trade and the Ethical Trade Initiative (ETI)===
*Fair Trade is both a movement and a certification system that aims to give farmers and workers in developing countries a fairer deal for their products. When you see the Fair Trade stamp on items like chocolate, it indicates that the producers have received a minimum, stable price for their goods as well as an additional 'Fair Trade Premium', which can be invested in local community projects such as schools or medical facilities. Beyond pricing, Fair Trade also promotes safe working conditions, protects workers' rights, and supports environmental sustainability. Read more about Fair trade [https://www.fairtrade.org.uk/ here].
*The Ethical Trade Initiative (ETI) is a leading alliance of companies, trade unions, and non-governmental organizations that promotes respect for workers’ rights around the globe. It focuses on improving conditions in global supply chains by encouraging companies to adopt and implement the ETI Base Code—an internationally recognized set of labour standards drawn from the International Labour Organization (ILO). Members of the ETI commit to working collaboratively, conducting regular assessments, and taking steps to address issues such as low wages, unsafe workplaces, and discrimination. Through these efforts, the ETI aims to foster more responsible business practices, ensuring that workers receive fair treatment and decent working conditions. Read more about the ETI [https://www.ethicaltrade.org/about-eti here]

===ii. Economic issues and globalisation===
#Globalisation refers to the increasing integration and interdependence of countries and people around the world. This process is driven by the flow of goods, services, information, and cultural influences across borders. It is made possible by advances in technology, transportation, and communication, which allow businesses to operate internationally and people to connect across long distances. Globalisation can lead to economic growth, wider access to products, and cultural exchange, but it also raises concerns about inequality, exploitation, and the loss of local traditions.

==iii. Material sustainability and optimisation, availability, recycling and conservation schemes, such as:==
#exploring the impact and use of eco-materials. Pages 2-3 of [http://www.d4s-sbs.org/MH.pdf this document] give a definition and examples.
#exploring how materials can be up-cycled. Up-cycling is the process of taking a product which would ordinarily be thrown away, and re-working it to create a new (wanted) product. Doing this extends the life of the product and prevents that item from going to landfill. Examples of this can be seen all over the web, and range in their complexity. Cutting the top off an old water bottle allows the bottom half to be used as a plant-pot or for storing pencils in, for instance. Others have taken old lego-bricks, drilled holes through them and threaded them to create jewellery, or cutting oil drums in half then adding steel legs to create barbeques.

==3.3a. Demonstrate an understanding of how to achieve an optimum use of materials and components, including:==

===i. The cost of materials and/or components===
#When designing new products, it is desirable to use the least amount of material possible to achieve the task at hand.
#Some materials are more costly than others – but why? Let’s consider woods and man-made boards (e.g. plywood, cardboard, MDF). MDF and chipboard are two of the cheapest man-made boards to purchase. These are made from roughly broken up chips of scrap wood (chipboard) or waste sawdust from working with wood products which are mixed up with glue and pressed into sheets. As they can be made from any scrap wood, they are very low-cost to manufacture.
#Pine (a softwood, popular for making furniture) is also cheap, and provides an attractive grain in its finished product. Pine grows very quickly and therefore new stocks of pine can be readily produced, reducing its cost. Oak (a hardwood), on the other hand grows very slowly, but produces a denser, stronger wood with an attractive colour. Because of this, it is more expensive to farm and this affects its price.

===ii. Stock sizes and forms available===
#Although materials are often chosen first, sometimes it is the shape and process which is the limiting factor. The availability and stock forms of materials also affect price, as commonly available forms are more cost effective than special sizes.
#They are made in quantity, so bulk purchasing can mean less transportation socts and this can also benefit the environment.

===iii. Sustainable production===
#When selecting machine screws to bolt two pieces of 5mm Acrylic together, the engineer might select an M3x12 machine screw (3mm diameter, 12mm long). This would give 2mm protruding from the back of the last piece of acrylic which an M3 nut can be threaded onto to hold the pieces together. If a longer machine screw were selected, the extra protruding material is effectively waste.
#When designing a light-weight box to store nails on a shelf in a workshop, the designer might elect to use MDF sheet (very low cost material; made from sawdust and urea formaldehyde). This is available in a number of industry-standard thicknesses: 3mm, 6mm, 9mm, 12mm, 18mm and 25mm. Any of these could be used, but the designer would probably select 3mm for this specific application – the box won’t have to carry a large amount of weight. If they were designing the shelf (and so needed more strength), 18mm or 25mm would be more appropriate.
#There are lots of different materials; you don’t need to have an encyclopaedic knowledge of these, but you should be able to identify a few hardwoods, softwoods, man-made boards, ferrous metals, non-ferrous metals, thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics. [[https://bournetoinvent.com/projects/a_level_de_theory/5.html][www.BourneToInvent.com]] has plenty on this in its theory section on resistant materials.

==Factors to consider when distributing products to markets?==
==3.4a. Understand the issues related to the effective and responsible distribution of products, including:==
===i. Cost effective distribution===
===ii. Environmental issues and energy requirements===
===iii. Social media and mobile technology===
===iv. Global production and delivery===
#When a business finds themselves shipping large amounts of a product, a strategy is needed to ensure that costs are kept down to ensure that profit is maximised. A number of approaches could be taken:
#A single, large distribution centre located in the middle of the region/country that the business most commonly serves. The business will only have a single set of heating, lighting, water, broadband, etc to pay for and a single set of employees to organise and care for. Stock all arrives at a single point, and logistics are straightforward. Unfortunately, if more customers start to appear further afield, transport costs start to increase. Additionally, if there is a problem at the centre (e.g. IT failure), the entire shipping operation ceases to function.
#Several smaller centres are another option (there’s an Ikea distribution centre in Peterborough, for instance). These provide some redundancy in the event of a system failure, but for a smaller business, each centre many not be able to hold as much stock as a larger one.
#Things become more complex if/when a company chooses to start shipping internationally. If a company is producing bulky items (e.g. a car), sending to another country means putting products into steel shipping containers and having them travel on a boat to their destination. To get an item to/from China takes around 40-50 days; customers may not be willing to wait that long, and so additional distribution centres may be needed. Alternatively, businesses may elect to set up additional factories around the World to make the product(s) in the country they’ll be sold in (e.g. Coke).
#Nice article on this [http://ibisinc.com/blog/10-critical-factors-to-a-cost-effective-distribution-strategy/ here].

== 3.4b. Demonstrate an understanding of the implications of intellectual property (IP), registered designs, registered trademarks, copyright, design rights and patents, in relation to ethics in design practice and consumer rights. ==
#Intellectual Property is something unique that someone physically creates (not merely an idea). A book isn’t IP, but the words within it are, for instance.
#[https://www.gov.uk/register-a-design Registered designs] allow designers to protect the look of a product to stop others from copying/stealing it. This gives the designer protection for 25 years.
#Trademarks allow a company to distinguish their product from others' brands and prevents others from using their brand (e.g. Coke®, Apple®). It’s designed to protect consumers from counterfeiters, allowing the owner to take legal action against anyone using it.
##Used by a company or individual to identify their brand.
##Trademarks can be in the form of a word, name, song, or symbol.
##Trademarks can be registered as a logo, slogan, domain name, shape or sound.
##To register a trademark it must be unique and distinctive.
##Trademarks must be fair and accurate.
##Trademarks must be morally acceptable.
##Must be registered with the Intellectual Property Office (IPO).
##Must be renewed every 10 years.
#[https://www.gov.uk/copyright Copyright] protects business’ work for 70 years, to prevent others from using it without permission. It is automatic (you don’t need to apply) when you create literary/dramatic work, software, web content and broadcasts. Unless they have your permission to do so, others can’t copy, sell your work or put it online.
##A set of exclusive rights given to creators of original ideas, information or other intellectual works.
##Copyright material can only be copied, used or recreated with the owner’s permission.
##Copyright protection is automatic and no registration is needed.
##The work is often marked with the © symbol, used alongside the creator’s name and the date.
##Work is still protected even without the © symbol.
##Copyright does not protect the ideas for a piece of work.
##Copyright lasts for 70 years for most types of written work.
##Photographs are copyrighted for 25 years.
#Registered Designs gives the designer ownership rights for the appearance of a product.
##Protects distinctive product shape, pattern or decoration.
##Protects distinctive visual features e.g. lines, contours, colours, materials.
##The design must be new and original.
##Must have a unique character, not resemble an existing design.
##Must be registered with the Intellectual Property Office (IPO).
##Must be renewed every 5 years.
#[https://www.gov.uk/design-right Design rights] automatically protect protect the creator of a design (unless a 3rd party commissions the work) for 10 years after the designs are created, to stop people copying your designs. While one does not need to register, doing to provides better protection.
##Design rights protect the configuration or shape of a product.
##They can be used to prevent copying of an original design without permission.
##Design rights do not protect the 2D aspects of the design, e.g. patterns.
##Design rights can be bought, sold or licensed.
##They stay in force for 10 years after first marketing of the product (or 15 years after creating the design).
##For the first 5 years, others are prevented from copying the design.
##For the remaining time the design is subject to a licence of right.
##Design rights only apply in the UK.
#Patents are expensive and difficult to obtain, but they provide a way to protect an invention. A patent-holder can take legal action against anyone who makes, uses or sells your invention without your permission. Large corporations like Adobe hold many patents for different parts of their products to ensure they have a competitive advantage.
##Granted by the government, they offer strong protection.
##Difficult to obtain, involving long, expensive, technical processes.
##Inventors must publicise all details of the invention.
##Patent lawyers are often employed to write a strong patent.
##Protect against copying the technical and functional aspects of a design.
##Can cover how a device works and what materials are used.
##Protect designs and inventions for 20 years.
##The invention must be new.
##It must have an inventive step that is not obvious to someone with technical knowledge.
##The invention must be capable of being made.

==3.5a. Understand wider issues relating to the selection of energy sources, storage, transmission and utilisation in order to select them appropriately for use.==
#Energy sources:
##Solar Energy.
##Wind Energy.
##Geothermal Energy.
##Hydrogen Energy.
##Tidal Energy.
##Wave Energy.
##Hydroelectric Energy.
##Biomass Energy.
#Click [here https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/different-energy-sources.php] to read more about these sources.

==Energy storage==
#Energy storage. Energy storage systems, also known as batteries or thermal stores, allow you to capture heat or electricity when it is readily available, typically from a renewables system, and save it until a time when it is useful to you.

==Energy transmission==
#Electric power transmission is the bulk movement of electrical energy from a generating site, such as a power plant, to an electrical substation. The interconnected lines which facilitate this movement are known as a transmission network.

==Energy utilisation==
#Energy utilization focuses on technologies that can lead to new and potentially more efficient ways of using electricity in residential, commercial and industrial settings—as well as in the transportation sector.

==How can skills and knowledge from other subjects areas, including mathematics and science, inform decisions in product design==
==3.6a. Demonstrate an understanding of the need to incorporate knowledge from other experts and subjects to inform design and manufacturing decisions, including the areas of science and mathematics==
#When creating ambitious new products, teams of engineers, computer scientists, physicists and mathematicians will be required to work together. Each brings a unique perspective to help develop the design to be optimal – the computer scientist might advise on a better smartphone user-interface or way to make the product work more intuitively. The physicist may be able to suggest a design modification to make an engine part more lightweight and stronger at the same time. The mathematician may be able to identify a way to make a 3D printer operate more rapidly by suggesting an improved algorithm.

==3.6b. Understand how undertaking primary and secondary research and being able to interpret technical data and information from specialist websites and publications supports design development==
#Primary research is that which the engineering team conduct themselves, such as an interview with users of an existing system or watching users of said system using their current system. This has the advantage of providing a ‘feel’ for the problem to be solved.
#Secondary research is the process of gathering data that has already been produced: Company reports, web searches or datasheets for electronics parts. This allows users to learn about new design approaches, technological developments or the release of new parts which may be useful in designing a new system.

==Practice Question==
#Designers and manufacturers should consider the social footprint and the ecological footprint of any materials they use.
##Describe how a social footprint is created by the manufacture of a product. [2]
##Describe the ecological footprint that results when using timber in products. [4]
##Discuss how a lifecycle assessment (LCA) would be carried out on a domestic refrigerator. Make reference to the following stages of the product’s life in your answer:
###manufacture;
###use;
###end of life. [8]
#DesEng AS Practice paper 1, Q3.

[[Design_Engineering|Design Engineering homepage]]

Main Page

2025-06-06T11:20:55Z

Stsb11: /* This week in the Sixth Form (Week 2) */

==This week in the Sixth Form (Week 2)==

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;
! 09/06/25 - Monday
! 10/06/25 - Tuesday
! 11/06/25 - Wednesday
! 12/06/25 - Thursday
! 13/06/25 - Friday
|-
|Tutor Time
|Tutor Time
|Tutor Time
Yr 12 London Theatre Trip
|Tutor Time
Yr 12 London Theatre trip
|Tutor Time
Yr 12 London Theatre Trip
|}

==Contents==
{| class="wikitable"
!Live
!Academic
!Careers
!Pastoral
!Information
|-style="vertical-align: top;"
|
*[https://socs.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/Month.aspx School Calendar]
*[[SPR_Meetings|SPR Meetings]]
*[[Key Dates 2024-25]]
*[[Head Students and Senior Prefects 2024]]

|
*[[Academic_Support|Academic Support]]
*New:[[EPQ|EPQ Information]]
*Featured:[[Year_13 A Level Exams|Year 13 A-Level Timetable 2025]]
*Featured:[[Year_12 FUPG Timetable 2025|Year 12 FUPG Timetable 2025]]
*[https://www.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/page/?title=Exam+information&pid=152 Exams Information]
*[[Productivity_Resources|Productivity Resources]]
*[[Study Skills]]
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/d/db/Learning_Skills_booklet.docx Learning Skills Booklet]
*[[Subject Pages]]
*[https://www.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/page/?title=A%2DLevel+Subjects%26%23160%3B&pid=154 Subject Specifications]

|
*[[Apprenticeship_Opportunities|Apprenticeship Opportunities]]
*Featured:[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/8/84/Post_18_Options_handbook.pdf Post 18 Options Handbook]
*[[Careers_Resources|Careers Resources]]
*Featured:[[Student Finance_Resources|Student Finance Resources]]

*[[UCAS_Guidance|UCAS Guidance]]
*[[Applying to Medical School]]
*[[Your_Personal_Statement|Effective UCAS Personal Statements]]
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/2/2e/Post_18_launch_26.3.24.pptx Post 18 Day ppt]
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/c/c5/Know_before_you_go.pdf Know before you go]
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/2/21/The_Definitive_Guide_to_not_going_to_Uni.ppt The Definitive Guide to not going to Uni]

|
*Featured:[[PSHE|PSHE Resources]]
*[[Pastoral_Resources|Pastoral Resources]]
*[https://issuu.com/healthguidepublishing/docs/shg_2023_uni_digital_book Student Health Guide]
*[https://www.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/page/?title=Bursary+Fund&pid=150 Bursary Fund]
*[[Enrichment|Enrichment Timetable]]
*[[Sixth Form Student Agreement]]

|
*[[BGS_Sixth_Form_A-Z_Guide|A-Z Guide to the Sixth form]]
*[[The_Sixth_Form_Team|The Sixth Form Team]]
*[[Teacher_List|Teacher and Form Tutor list]]
*[https://www.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/page/?title=Dress+Guidelines&pid=156 Sixth Form Dress Guidelines]
*[[Duke of Edinburgh's Award]]
*[[Lanyard_System|Lanyard check-in/out guide]]
*[[Site Map|Maps of the School site]]
*[[Microsoft Teams Guides]]
*[[structure|Structure of the School Day]]
*[https://www.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/page/?title=Term+Dates&pid=58 Term Dates]
*[[Societies|Societies tbc]]

|}

*The Sixth Form intranet is now available outside of school, at [https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/ https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/]. Use your network username and password to connect.

==Downloads==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/3f/Student_Volunteering_Letter_and_Application_Form_2024.docx Student Volunteering Letter and Application Form 2024]
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/f5/Volunteering_Placement_Parental_Letter_2024.docx Volunteering Parental Letter 2024]

Model Past Paper solutions

2025-01-17T11:48:51Z

Stsb11: /* 2023 AS Paper */

==2016 Sample AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/b/b5/2018_AS_Question_and_Answer.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions and mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/c/c8/Design_Engineering_2016.pdf AS Paper] model solution

==2017 Sample papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/11/201x_Practice_Paper_B1_Questions.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/5/54/201x_Practice_Paper_B1_Answers.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme (pg. 21 onwards)
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/6/65/201x_Practice_Paper_B2_Questions.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/1d/201x_Practice_Paper_B2_Resources.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resources
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/34/201x_Practice_Paper_B2_Answers.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme (pg. 13 onwards)

==2018 Sample papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/2/29/201x_Practice_Paper_A1_Questions.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/0/0d/201x_Practice_Paper_A1_Answers.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/8/84/201x_Practice_Paper_A2_Questions.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/7/78/201x_Practice_Paper_A2_Resources.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resources
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/36/201x_Practice_Paper_A2_Answers.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2018 AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/f7/H004-01_Question_Paper_Jun18.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/36/H004_Mark_Scheme_June18.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2018 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/42/2018_Paper_1_Question_and_Answer.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions and mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/a/a9/2018_Paper_2_Question_and_Answer.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions and mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/b/b6/2018_Paper_2_Resources.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resources

==2019 AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/c/c0/2019_AS_Questions.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/a/a4/2019_AS_Answers.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2019 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/6/69/2019_DesEng_Paper_1_Questions.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/0/02/2019_DesEng_Paper_1_Answers.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/fc/Design_Engineering_2019_Paper_1.pdf Paper 1] model solution
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/b/b8/2019_DesEng_Paper_2_Questions.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/a/a4/2019_DesEng_Paper_2_Resources.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resources
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/7/73/2019_DesEng_Paper_2_Marks.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/9/9b/Design_Engineering_2019_Paper_2.pdf Paper 2] model solution

==2020 AS Paper==
*No AS paper was published in 2020 due to the Covid-19 pandemic.

==2020 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/e/e9/Paper_1.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/f2/H404_01_MS_Nov20.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/43/Paper_2.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/2/2d/Paper_2_Resource_booklet.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/11/H404_02_MS_Nov20.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2021 AS Paper==
*No AS paper was published in 2021 due to the Covid-19 pandemic.

==2021 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/ff/H404-01_QP_Oct21.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/1d/H404-01_MS_Oct21.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/d/df/H404-02_QP_Oct21.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/e/ef/H404-02_Resource_Booklet_Oct21.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/3c/H404-02_MS_Oct21.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2022 AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/4f/H004-01_QP_Jun22.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/41/H004-01_MS_Jun22.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2022 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/19/H404-01_QP_Jun22.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/5/54/H404-01_MS_Jun22.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/30/H404-02_QP_Jun22.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/6/62/H404-02_RB_Jun22.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/4b/H404-02_MS_Jun22.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2023 AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/e/ee/2023_AS_Paper.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/d/d1/2023_AS_Paper_Marks.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2023 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/5/51/Question_paper_June_2023_%28H40401%29.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/16/Mark_scheme_June_2023_%28H40401%29.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/a/a9/Question_paper_June_2023_%28H40402%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/3b/Resource_booklet_June_2023_%28H40402%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/3e/Mark_scheme_June_2023_%28H40402%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==Other items==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/f3/Feb_2020_Y12_PUPG.pdf Feb 2020 PUPG] exam paper

[[Design_Engineering|Design Engineering homepage]]

File:2023 AS Paper Marks.pdf

2025-01-17T11:48:34Z

Stsb11:

Model Past Paper solutions

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Stsb11:

==2016 Sample AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/b/b5/2018_AS_Question_and_Answer.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions and mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/c/c8/Design_Engineering_2016.pdf AS Paper] model solution

==2017 Sample papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/11/201x_Practice_Paper_B1_Questions.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/5/54/201x_Practice_Paper_B1_Answers.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme (pg. 21 onwards)
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/6/65/201x_Practice_Paper_B2_Questions.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/1d/201x_Practice_Paper_B2_Resources.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resources
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/34/201x_Practice_Paper_B2_Answers.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme (pg. 13 onwards)

==2018 Sample papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/2/29/201x_Practice_Paper_A1_Questions.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/0/0d/201x_Practice_Paper_A1_Answers.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/8/84/201x_Practice_Paper_A2_Questions.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/7/78/201x_Practice_Paper_A2_Resources.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resources
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/36/201x_Practice_Paper_A2_Answers.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2018 AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/f7/H004-01_Question_Paper_Jun18.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/36/H004_Mark_Scheme_June18.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2018 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/42/2018_Paper_1_Question_and_Answer.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions and mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/a/a9/2018_Paper_2_Question_and_Answer.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions and mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/b/b6/2018_Paper_2_Resources.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resources

==2019 AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/c/c0/2019_AS_Questions.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/a/a4/2019_AS_Answers.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2019 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/6/69/2019_DesEng_Paper_1_Questions.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/0/02/2019_DesEng_Paper_1_Answers.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/fc/Design_Engineering_2019_Paper_1.pdf Paper 1] model solution
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/b/b8/2019_DesEng_Paper_2_Questions.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/a/a4/2019_DesEng_Paper_2_Resources.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resources
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/7/73/2019_DesEng_Paper_2_Marks.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/9/9b/Design_Engineering_2019_Paper_2.pdf Paper 2] model solution

==2020 AS Paper==
*No AS paper was published in 2020 due to the Covid-19 pandemic.

==2020 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/e/e9/Paper_1.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/f2/H404_01_MS_Nov20.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/43/Paper_2.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/2/2d/Paper_2_Resource_booklet.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/11/H404_02_MS_Nov20.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2021 AS Paper==
*No AS paper was published in 2021 due to the Covid-19 pandemic.

==2021 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/ff/H404-01_QP_Oct21.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/1d/H404-01_MS_Oct21.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/d/df/H404-02_QP_Oct21.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/e/ef/H404-02_Resource_Booklet_Oct21.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/3c/H404-02_MS_Oct21.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2022 AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/4f/H004-01_QP_Jun22.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/41/H004-01_MS_Jun22.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2022 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/19/H404-01_QP_Jun22.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/5/54/H404-01_MS_Jun22.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/30/H404-02_QP_Jun22.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/6/62/H404-02_RB_Jun22.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/4/4b/H404-02_MS_Jun22.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2023 AS Paper==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/e/ee/2023_AS_Paper.pdf H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/ H004/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme

==2023 A-Level Papers==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/5/51/Question_paper_June_2023_%28H40401%29.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/1/16/Mark_scheme_June_2023_%28H40401%29.pdf H404/01 Principles of Design Engineering] mark scheme
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/a/a9/Question_paper_June_2023_%28H40402%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] questions
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/3b/Resource_booklet_June_2023_%28H40402%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] resource booklet
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/3/3e/Mark_scheme_June_2023_%28H40402%29.pdf H404/02 Problem Solving in Design Engineering] mark scheme

==Other items==
*[https://sixthform.bourne-grammar.lincs.sch.uk/images/f/f3/Feb_2020_Y12_PUPG.pdf Feb 2020 PUPG] exam paper

[[Design_Engineering|Design Engineering homepage]]

File:2023 AS Paper.pdf

2025-01-17T11:47:11Z

Stsb11:

Implications of wider issues

2025-01-06T13:24:42Z

Stsb11: /* i. Planning for accuracy and efficiency through testing and prototyping */

==Factors to consider whilst investigating design possibilities==
#Superficially, a manufacturer would like to be unencumbered at the design stage, with free reign to devise new products without limitation. Engineers have a wider social and environmental responsibility to take a broader and longer-term view, however.

==3.1a Understand how social, ethical and environmental issues have influenced and been impacted by past and present developments in design practice and thinking, including:==
===Social, Moral, Ethical and Environmental considerations for Design Engineers===
#Social: How the use of a material/manufacturing method/product could impact on people's lives and the lives of the immediate community.
#E.g. A charity might choose to give 3D printers to developing countries to for the purpose of 3D printing prosthetic limbs. Social considerations/impacts of this might be...
##Allows increased social interaction within the community for the recipient.
##Might enable them to work, and in doing so be able to support their family financially.
##Possibility of the user being ostracised by the community if they feel that the use of prosthetics is culturally inappropriate.
##Could giving the recipient a sense of belonging and allowing them to do jobs within the community.
#E.g. Social issues that might be considered when developing a new outdoor barbeque might be...
##Increase in emotional health as cooking is considered by many as being a relaxing activity
##Increased interaction with friends, as people will often come together to eat
##BBQing is a relatively slow way to cook, so families will spend more time together while their meal is prepared
##Learning to BBQ well provides an opportunity to improve cooking skills
##There may be perceived health benefits of being outside stood up / grilling food rather than other cooking methods that are less active.
#Moral: Morals are the guiding principles that the engineers are working to; these can then be used to help frame ethical considerations (which are generally more practical). One way to consider these issues around a new product would be to consider the potential for someone do something that might be considered undesirable or illegal. Moral issues can also relate to the choice of materials and components and the manufacturing techniques used. Whilst these link into environmental issues, it can be immoral to make choices that disregard the negative impact the development of a product could have.
##With the 3D printed prosthetics scenario, the charity/company would argue that their aim is to help recipients of new limbs lead as normal life as possible.
##...but there is a risk that the printer could be used to produce other items (e.g. weapons) than those for which it is intended which they would need to be aware of.
##Kitchen knives can be used to prepare food, hunt and to create art by carving. They can also be used to commit crimes; a designer could look to avoid putting sharp points, to make knives less likely to be used for stabbing, for instance. The safety of the user is a moral responsibility of the designer.
#Cultural: Cultural issues can arise when a new product does not take into account the fact that a particular shape, colour or name can have very different meanings to different groups of people. Designers need to take care not to offend groups of people with different traditions and beliefs. For example, red is the colour for mourning in Africa whereas in China it is considered to be lucky. A careful choice of name, shape and colour can help promote a sense of unity between different global cultures and is particularly relevant if the product is to be sold in a country with a multi-cultural society. Some examples of moral considerations are...
#Ethical: Considering the impact of a product and whether it is morally correct to produce it. Ethics aim to answer the question, "What should I/we do?". A company/person's decisions are shaped by their values, principles, and purpose rather than unthinking habits, social conventions, or self-interest. Ethical considerations for the 3D printed prosthetics scenario above could be...
##Who pays for the prosthetics and what should the cost be?
##What is the product life span and who decides when it is changed?
##Who decides who is given one?
##At what age should they be given a prosthetic or it be taken away?
##What physiotherapy training will they get when receiving a prosthetic?
##Who will service the machines? Who will pay for repairs? The new filament?
#Environmental: Considering what the impacts (good and bad) will be as the result of taking a particular course of action. E.g. A new laptop involves sourcing new raw materials, transporting these to a factory (in lorries), energy-intensive processing to manufacture them, transport again on lorries then cargo containers then lorries to get them to the consumers who are to use them. Once in use, they will consume electrical energy throughout their life-span. At end-of-life, the various components (made from a variety of materials) risk ending up in landfill unless they can be recycled.
#Marketing: Design Engineers will also need to have regard as to what will need thinking about when it comes time to try and sell the product. Especially if the product isn't entirely new, but trying to find it's place in an existing market place. They will often seek to find a Unique Selling Point (USP) that makes the new product stand out from the competition.
#E.g. Marketing issues that might be considered when developing a new outdoor barbeque might be...
##Current culinary trends; gas or charcoal? Recently, there's increased interest in vegetarian/vegan diets. This could be used in marketing materials.
##Age range of the target audience.
##The size of the market along with their disposable income to spend on outdoor cooking. This will determine the best price point - is a cheap product most likely to sell, or a higher-priced model made with premium materials and which has lots of extra features?
##Understand the end goal of that market group with regards to BBQ-ing. What is the customer looking for? A quick and compact BBQ for occasional use, or something large designed to cater for large numbers and be used regularly?
##The life span of the BBQ, enabling it to be sold with a long warranty
##Any potential for accessories that be sold to compliment and extend the functionality of the BBQ (e.g. a pizza stone insert, rotisserie for cooking chickens, etc)

*Practice question: Discuss how the engineer’s responsibility extends beyond meeting the needs of the consumer and manufacturer.
*Practice question: Many UK-based companies manufacture their electronic products in other countries. Discuss the moral and/or ethical considerations of the globalisation of product manufacture.

===i. Consideration of lifecycle assessment (LCA) at all stages of a product’s life from raw material to disposal===
#Life cycle assessment is a methodology for assessing environmental impacts associated with all the stages of the life cycle of a commercial product, process, or service. For instance, in the case of a manufactured product, environmental impacts are assessed from raw material extraction and processing, through the product's manufacture, distribution and use, to the recycling or final disposal of the materials composing it.
##Acquisition of raw materials. All products or systems are created from raw materials. Consider the energy needed to extract oil, ores and timber. Look at the environmental impact of mining, deforestation and other issues related to the extraction of raw materials.
##Transporting raw materials. Consider how raw materials are transported nationally and internationally and examine the environmental impact of, for example, oil tanker disasters and pollution of the air by fuel emissions. Using electric vehicles is cleaner for road users but the generation of electricity to recharge vehicle batteries impacts on the environment.
##Processing raw materials. Consider the energy requirements and environmental effects of transforming raw materials by chemical or physical processing methods, for example, smelting and converting ores into usable materials, making polymers from oil.
##Manufacturing the product. Most products require machine processing. The manufacturing industry requires energy for machines, lighting, heating, etc. Textile products are often dyed during manufacture and the chemicals used may have an environmental impact. Often manufacturing doesn’t take place in the same area as material processing. Transporting materials, components and completed products for distribution involves considerable energy use and impacts on the environment.
##Using the product Some products require no further energy in usage. Many products, such as cars, washing machines and electrical items use significant amounts of energy. Some products, such as milk bottles, are reused; energy is used for cleaning before refilling. Detergents used may have an environmental impact.
##Disposal and recycling The collection of waste requires energy. Incineration centres use energy to dispose of waste, although many reclaim the energy created by incineration for useful purposes. Landfill systems may impact on the environment. Often recycling materials can use significant amounts of energy, but this will use less raw materials and conserve valuable natural resources.
===LCA Case Study: A fridge===
#An LCA for a domestic refrigerator might consider...
##Sourcing materials
###Energy needed to extract or recycle metals (steel, aluminium copper) and polymers – pollution and waste products.
###Manufacture of harmful/toxic refrigerant gasses – energy used, pollutants created.
###Manufacture of electronic components – chemicals extracted, energy, pollution.
##Product assembly
###Energy to press steel sheets into shape.
###Energy to form thermoplastics into shape.
###Manufacture of PCBs – energy, pollution
###Filling of refrigerant gas – risk of leaks.
###Product assembly in factory – energy for lighting/heating/machinery.
##Use
###Energy used during product use.
###Standby energy – product always on – considerable energy used over product lifetime.
###Energy rating of product.
###Improved thermal insulation of fridge to reduce energy requirements.
##End of life
###Risk of release of refrigerant gas into environment.
###Much of product could be recycled.
###Take back scheme by manufacturer.
###Risk of dumping in landfill.
###Gas can be safely removed and reused.
###Thermal insulation materials can be difficult to recycle.
###Steel can be recycled.
###Use of RoHS directive should reduce use of harmful materials
##Transport
###At all stages, transportation to move materials/parts/products around.
###Globalisation may involve huge distances being travelled around world.
###Fuel used, pollution produced.
###Bulky product so takes up a lot of space on transport vessel.
#You can read more about LCA in the textbook on page 70.
#You can see a real-life UK government-funded LCA for a plastic bag [https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/291023/scho0711buan-e-e.pdf here].

===ii. The source and origin of materials; and the ecological and social footprint of materials===
#LCA is an analysis of the overall impact of a new product throughout its life. This starts with compiling an inventory of relevant inputs and outputs, then evaluating the potential environmental impacts associated with those inputs and outputs and interpreting the results of the inventory and impact phases in relation to the objectives of the study.
#A product starts life as raw materials. Will these be taken from the ground (e.g. an iron ore mine) or take from recycled sources (e.g. recycled aluminium cans)? To dig new material from the ground will require considerable energy to drive plant machinery, to be refined into pure material and then will need shipping to the factory for production.
#Once built, products tend to consume additional resources. A car, for instance will need a constant stream of petrol or diesel – how much will depend on the engine capacity and how efficient it is. The car will also need new tyres, exhaust pipes and other predictable spare parts during its lifetime.
#At ‘end of life’, a product should be designed to be as recyclable as possible. A dishwasher can be dismantled into a set of mild and stainless steel parts which can be recycled; plastic parts can be sorted by plastic type and recycled and so on. By using materials which are known to be readily recyclable, the amount which goes to landfill can be minimised.
#Further reading: http://www.gdrc.org/uem/lca/lca-define.html

====Social Footprint====
#A company’s social footprint measures their effect on people and communities. Impacts can be both positive and negative.
#General examples include...
##Mining chemicals to make batteries can scar the environment.
##Building of factories to manufacture the product can have a negative impact on the landscape and environment.
##Building of factories to manufacture/distribute the product can lead to the creation of jobs in the local community.
#For a more specific example, a Textile factory can have a negative impact on communities in a variety of ways, including:
##Noise: Knitting and weaving manufacturing can be loud
##Waste disposal: this must be dealt with responsibly, especially any hazardous chemicals involved in cotton production.
##Child labour: the use of children in textile production remains a challenge for the clothing industry. Fibre dust - the dust released in textile processing can cause respiratory diseases for those in close proximity
##Worker’s rights: consideration needs to be given to the working conditions and pay of skilled and unskilled textile workers

====Ecological footprint====
#An ecological footprint measures the impact of human activity on the environment and how much natural resource is needed.
#Considering the use of timber (for example), the ecological footprint of this might include...
##Timber is a natural material which must be grown in forests, it can take up a substantial area of land to grow and be cultivated. Whilst the production of timber is nearly carbon neutral, energy is needed
to process and transport the timber to the market source.
##Whilst timbers can take several decades to grow, softwoods grow significantly faster than hardwoods. Therefore the use of softwoods in the construction and furniture industry produces a smaller ecological footprint.
##Throughout the production of products the waste material created from the various processes is often used for fuel or for the production of manufactured materials i.e. MDF.
#A growing population means that more raw products are needed to fulfil their textiles needs. Ecological impacts of textiles might include...
##Farming: Growing natural fibres such as cotton can lead to the degradation of soil. This can lead farmers to expand into other areas, destroying natural habitats. Cotton production and processing uses a lot of water, so rivers are often diverted, which has a severe impact on ecosystems such as the Indus Delta in Pakistan. Use of fertilisers and pesticides in cotton production can cause pollution in rivers and drinking water, causing health concerns for workers and local wildlife. Rearing animals, such as sheep or alpacas, for their wool also leads to expanding land requirements, which can cause deforestation and loss of habitat.
##Drilling: Drilling for oil to produce man-made synthetic textiles requires large storage areas and refining plants to change the oil into the materials needed for manufacturing. This process can be harmful to the environment. Oil is non-renewable and, when refined, produces fabrics that do not biodegrade easily.
#Whenever environmental impact is to be reduced, ‘the 6 Rs’ can be addressed to ensure an in-depth analysis has been done. The 6 Rs can be considered by the designer, the manufacturer and the consumer to reduce that negative impact on the environment.
##Reduce the number of the amount of energy or materials used during production
##Reuse products rather than buying new ones
##Recycle into other products
##Rethink production techniques to conserve power, water and fuel emissions, eg the development of more environmentally friendly colouring techniques results in less contaminated waste water.
##Refuse to buy products that have been aren’t ‘fair trade’ or that have excessive packaging.
##Repair broken products, reducing waste and saving energy on production.
#Further reading [http://www.gdrc.org/uem/lca/lca-define.html here]

===iii. The depletion and effects of using natural sources of energy and raw materials===
#As you will have been taught in science lessons, any finite resource which needs to be dug from the ground is classed as non-renewable. Products should be designed to use the minimum necessary amount of material and, as discussed above, should come from recycled sources as far as possible to make the most efficient use possible of available resource.
#By using renewable energy sources (E.g. Wind/solar/geothermal/tidal) wherever possible, the rate of drain of non-renewable sources can be limited. Unfortunately, renewable sources tend to be dependent on variables such as whether its windy, meaning that it is difficult to rely solely on these as the primary source of energy for the plant.

===iv. Planned obsolescence===
#This is the process of designing a product with an artificially limited useful life. This forces consumers to shorten the replacement cycle of their product and encourage future purchases of a new model. This can be achieved by ceasing production of spare parts for a specific vacuum cleaner, making a product difficult/impossible to repair, having clothes which go out of fashion, etc.
#Further reading [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_obsolescence here]

===v. Buying trends===
#Trends among the public can heavily influence engineers as the rush to create products to satisfy those looking for the ‘next big thing’. The appetite for electric vehicles demonstrated by Toyota with their Prius along with the launch of Tesla motors high-performance cars has led to all the main car manufacturers developing and launching their own EVs in order to bring about the next major revolution in the car industry – a sector which has now moving away from a century-old technology to embrace a more environmentally friendly approach to transport.

===environmental incentives and directives===
#Most World governments believe that global warming is a man-made problem, and that it is wise to lower carbon footprints. Governments can help modify the behaviour of the public by creating incentives to be more green.
#The UK Government incentivised the installation of solar panels on homes, offering generous feed-in rates to early adopters who could enjoy considerable savings on their energy bills.
#Building regulations can be changed to insist that new homes are insulated to a specific level, legislation can outlaw incandescent bulbs for homes to be replaced with more energy efficient LED ones and vacuum cleaners have had the maximum power of their motors capped.

===vi. Environmental incentives and directives===
#Environmental tax incentives encourage businesses to operate in a more environmentally friendly way. There are taxes and schemes for different types and size of business.
#Examples of these incentives are:
##you use a lot of energy because of the nature of your business, you could get tax relief for using more renewable energy sources.
##you’re a small business that doesn’t use much energy.
##you buy energy-efficient technology for your business.

==Environmental directives==
#Waste of electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) such as computers, TV-sets, fridges and cell phones is one the fastest growing waste streams in the EU, with some 9 million tonnes generated in 2005, and expected to grow to more than 12 million tonnes by 2020.
#WEEE is a complex mixture of materials and components that because of their hazardous content, and if not properly managed, can cause major environmental and health problems.
#Moreover, the production of modern electronics requires the use of scarce and expensive resources (e.g. around 10% of total gold worldwide is used for their production). To improve the environmental management of WEEE and to contribute to a circular economy and enhance resource efficiency the improvement of collection, treatment and recycling of electronics at the end of their life is essential.
#The RoHS Directive 2002/95/EC on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in such equipment aims to reduce the amount of harmful substances at source. This should ensure that they are not leached into the environment by equipment, some of which will, inevitably, not be recycled.

==Factors to consider when developing design solutions for manufacture==
#There are three different scales of production: one-off, batch and mass/continuous flow. Products will be engineered differently depending on how the product is to be made.

==3.2a Awareness of the responsibilities and principles of designing for manufacture (DFM), including:==
===i. Planning for accuracy and efficiency through testing and prototyping===
#Prior to production, a large number of prototypes will be produced and experimented with. Each time a new sub-system is created, it can then be examined for ways to further improve it. Can the parts be made smaller? Are there empty spaces inside the housing (voids) which parts/wiring can be moved into? Can the internal parts be made thinner/lighter without affecting performance or durability? Thorough repeated testing can help answer these questions.
#In terms of 'Design for Manufacture', engineers might also...
##Minimise the number of parts
##Standardise the parts and materials, make maximum use of purchased parts, modular design and standard design features
##reduce the number of manufacturing operations
##Create modular parts assemblies
##Create methods for efficient joining
##Minimise any re-orientation of parts during assembly (this can be done by making parts symmetrical and avoiding the use of left-and right-handed parts).

===ii. Being aware of issues in relation to different scales of production===
#In a one-off product, only a single item is to be produced. Products made like this include catwalk clothes, wedding cakes, bespoke jewellery and prototypes for new products. Products made in this way are commonly made using hand-tools (e.g. drills, saws, screwdrivers, sheets of sandpaper), to allow a high quality finish. Items made this way will be inconsistent in their accuracy, given human margins of error.
#In a batch-production system, a specific number of items is made. In a bakery, a batch of 50 buns might be made, or a run of 1000 plastic buckets might be produced by injection moulding. Whether large or small, the defining characteristic is the finite number. In order to make batches which are consistent, jigs and formers are often used. Methods such as vacuum forming or laser-cutting may be deployed in order to facilitate the rapid production of parts. This may be coupled with some hand techniques in order to fabricate the finished product. An advantage of batch production setups is that they typically allow the flexibility to change the setup (e.g. re-design a part, change the product to be made) quickly.
#In mass (or continuous flow) production, the product in question is made all day, every day, non-stop (aside from scheduled breaks for maintenance). In order to achieve this and to maximise both output speed, accuracy and quality of the finished product, the majority of processes will be automated to the highest possible extent.

===iii. Designing for repair and maintenance===
#In commercial products (and many domestic ones), it is imperative that the designer recognises that their product will fail from time to time, necessitating parts being replaced in order to bring the device back online. In order to minimise the amount of time it takes to repair, designers can take several steps: Add removable access panels to the product, use generic parts (e.g. stepper motors) and ensuring that internal components can be easily removed (e.g. with bolts).

===iv. Designing with consideration of product life===
#Some products are designed to be ‘single-shot’, such as a promotional novelty light-up toy. Items such as this can be glued together with batteries sealed inside, as they only need to last a few hours. Other products such as cars will potentially run for several decades, and as such will need to be designed so that every component can be removed and replaced within a few hours.

===3.2b Awareness of product lifecycles that extend useful product life through planning for and consideration of maintenance, repair, upgrades, remanufacture and recycling systems===
#As discussed above, products’ lifespans will be considered as part of the design process. Maintenance and repair are discussed above. Creating upgrade options for products allows their useful life to be extended; this can be seen with the introduction of the VR headset for the PS4 console or upgrades to pre-existing London underground carriages in order to make them more attractive and comfortable.
#Remanufacturing is where an end-of-life product returns to the manufacturer. The product is then stripped down and re-build using new parts where necessary until the product is restored to an ‘as-new’ condition. These are then sold as remanufactured, often more cheaply than purchasing a new item. Examples include clutches for cars and Macbook Pro laptops from Apple. There is an environmental advantage to this too, as fewer new parts need to be manufactured to produce the ‘new’ part.

==3.2c Demonstrate an understanding of how environmental factors impact on:==
===i. Sourcing and processing raw materials into a workable form===

===ii. The disposal of waste, surplus materials and components, by-products of production===
#including pollution related to energy

===iii. Cost implications related to materials and process===
#Discussed above. Taking materials from the ground involves high cost at every turn: expensive plant machinery, manpower to operate it, the purchasing of the land to be mined, refinery costs to process ore into pure materials, the purchase/hire of lorries and people to drive them and then the cost of a factory (and workers) to manufacture the finished product. Once made, lorries/ships/planes are needed again to transport the good to shops for consumers.
#At an energy consumption level, digging ore from a quarry consumes large amounts of electricity and diesel/gas for machinery. Once extracted, ore needs transporting to a refinery. Heating ore to a molten state to separate pure metals requires further energy and then transporting the resulting material across the Planet to a factory for machining represents a further use of fossil fuels. Wherever possible, sourcing recycled materials that have already been obtained can limit further carbon emissions, although this also requires some processing and consumes energy.
#At end-of-life, the objective of the engineering team will be to make their products as close to 100% recyclable as possible. When manufacturers built products (especially in a mass production environment) in the past, production teams would ensure that sufficient component parts would be kept in stock to avoid running out and having to cease production. Unfortunately, this meant that when a product came to the end of its run, large numbers of bespoke component parts would be left which would be unusable for any future purpose, often needing to either go to landfill or to be recycled.

==3.2d Demonstrate an understanding of sustainability issues relating to industrial manufacture, including:==
===i. Fair trade and the Ethical Trade Initiative (ETI)===
*Fair Trade is both a movement and a certification system that aims to give farmers and workers in developing countries a fairer deal for their products. When you see the Fair Trade stamp on items like chocolate, it indicates that the producers have received a minimum, stable price for their goods as well as an additional 'Fair Trade Premium', which can be invested in local community projects such as schools or medical facilities. Beyond pricing, Fair Trade also promotes safe working conditions, protects workers' rights, and supports environmental sustainability. Read more about Fair trade [https://www.fairtrade.org.uk/ here].
*The Ethical Trade Initiative (ETI) is a leading alliance of companies, trade unions, and non-governmental organizations that promotes respect for workers’ rights around the globe. It focuses on improving conditions in global supply chains by encouraging companies to adopt and implement the ETI Base Code—an internationally recognized set of labour standards drawn from the International Labour Organization (ILO). Members of the ETI commit to working collaboratively, conducting regular assessments, and taking steps to address issues such as low wages, unsafe workplaces, and discrimination. Through these efforts, the ETI aims to foster more responsible business practices, ensuring that workers receive fair treatment and decent working conditions. Read more about the ETI [https://www.ethicaltrade.org/about-eti here]

===ii. Economic issues and globalisation===
#Globalisation refers to the increasing integration and interdependence of countries and people around the world. This process is driven by the flow of goods, services, information, and cultural influences across borders. It is made possible by advances in technology, transportation, and communication, which allow businesses to operate internationally and people to connect across long distances. Globalisation can lead to economic growth, wider access to products, and cultural exchange, but it also raises concerns about inequality, exploitation, and the loss of local traditions.

==iii. Material sustainability and optimisation, availability, recycling and conservation schemes, such as:==
#exploring the impact and use of eco-materials. Pages 2-3 of [http://www.d4s-sbs.org/MH.pdf this document] give a definition and examples.
#exploring how materials can be up-cycled. Up-cycling is the process of taking a product which would ordinarily be thrown away, and re-working it to create a new (wanted) product. Doing this extends the life of the product and prevents that item from going to landfill. Examples of this can be seen all over the web, and range in their complexity. Cutting the top off an old water bottle allows the bottom half to be used as a plant-pot or for storing pencils in, for instance. Others have taken old lego-bricks, drilled holes through them and threaded them to create jewellery, or cutting oil drums in half then adding steel legs to create barbeques.

==3.3a. Demonstrate an understanding of how to achieve an optimum use of materials and components, including:==

===i. The cost of materials and/or components===
#When designing new products, it is desirable to use the least amount of material possible to achieve the task at hand.
#Some materials are more costly than others – but why? Let’s consider woods and man-made boards (e.g. plywood, cardboard, MDF). MDF and chipboard are two of the cheapest man-made boards to purchase. These are made from roughly broken up chips of scrap wood (chipboard) or waste sawdust from working with wood products which are mixed up with glue and pressed into sheets. As they can be made from any scrap wood, they are very low-cost to manufacture.
#Pine (a softwood, popular for making furniture) is also cheap, and provides an attractive grain in its finished product. Pine grows very quickly and therefore new stocks of pine can be readily produced, reducing its cost. Oak (a hardwood), on the other hand grows very slowly, but produces a denser, stronger wood with an attractive colour. Because of this, it is more expensive to farm and this affects its price.

===ii. Stock sizes and forms available===
#Although materials are often chosen first, sometimes it is the shape and process which is the limiting factor. The availability and stock forms of materials also affect price, as commonly available forms are more cost effective than special sizes.
#They are made in quantity, so bulk purchasing can mean less transportation socts and this can also benefit the environment.

===iii. Sustainable production===
#When selecting machine screws to bolt two pieces of 5mm Acrylic together, the engineer might select an M3x12 machine screw (3mm diameter, 12mm long). This would give 2mm protruding from the back of the last piece of acrylic which an M3 nut can be threaded onto to hold the pieces together. If a longer machine screw were selected, the extra protruding material is effectively waste.
#When designing a light-weight box to store nails on a shelf in a workshop, the designer might elect to use MDF sheet (very low cost material; made from sawdust and urea formaldehyde). This is available in a number of industry-standard thicknesses: 3mm, 6mm, 9mm, 12mm, 18mm and 25mm. Any of these could be used, but the designer would probably select 3mm for this specific application – the box won’t have to carry a large amount of weight. If they were designing the shelf (and so needed more strength), 18mm or 25mm would be more appropriate.
#There are lots of different materials; you don’t need to have an encyclopaedic knowledge of these, but you should be able to identify a few hardwoods, softwoods, man-made boards, ferrous metals, non-ferrous metals, thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics. [[https://bournetoinvent.com/projects/a_level_de_theory/5.html][www.BourneToInvent.com]] has plenty on this in its theory section on resistant materials.

==Factors to consider when distributing products to markets?==
==3.4a. Understand the issues related to the effective and responsible distribution of products, including:==
===i. Cost effective distribution===
===ii. Environmental issues and energy requirements===
===iii. Social media and mobile technology===
===iv. Global production and delivery===
#When a business finds themselves shipping large amounts of a product, a strategy is needed to ensure that costs are kept down to ensure that profit is maximised. A number of approaches could be taken:
#A single, large distribution centre located in the middle of the region/country that the business most commonly serves. The business will only have a single set of heating, lighting, water, broadband, etc to pay for and a single set of employees to organise and care for. Stock all arrives at a single point, and logistics are straightforward. Unfortunately, if more customers start to appear further afield, transport costs start to increase. Additionally, if there is a problem at the centre (e.g. IT failure), the entire shipping operation ceases to function.
#Several smaller centres are another option (there’s an Ikea distribution centre in Peterborough, for instance). These provide some redundancy in the event of a system failure, but for a smaller business, each centre many not be able to hold as much stock as a larger one.
#Things become more complex if/when a company chooses to start shipping internationally. If a company is producing bulky items (e.g. a car), sending to another country means putting products into steel shipping containers and having them travel on a boat to their destination. To get an item to/from China takes around 40-50 days; customers may not be willing to wait that long, and so additional distribution centres may be needed. Alternatively, businesses may elect to set up additional factories around the World to make the product(s) in the country they’ll be sold in (e.g. Coke).
#Nice article on this [http://ibisinc.com/blog/10-critical-factors-to-a-cost-effective-distribution-strategy/ here].

== 3.4b. Demonstrate an understanding of the implications of intellectual property (IP), registered designs, registered trademarks, copyright, design rights and patents, in relation to ethics in design practice and consumer rights. ==
#Intellectual Property is something unique that someone physically creates (not merely an idea). A book isn’t IP, but the words within it are, for instance.
#[https://www.gov.uk/register-a-design Registered designs] allow designers to protect the look of a product to stop others from copying/stealing it. This gives the designer protection for 25 years.
#Trademarks allow a company to distinguish their product from others' brands and prevents others from using their brand (e.g. Coke®, Apple®). It’s designed to protect consumers from counterfeiters, allowing the owner to take legal action against anyone using it.
##Used by a company or individual to identify their brand.
##Trademarks can be in the form of a word, name, song, or symbol.
##Trademarks can be registered as a logo, slogan, domain name, shape or sound.
##To register a trademark it must be unique and distinctive.
##Trademarks must be fair and accurate.
##Trademarks must be morally acceptable.
##Must be registered with the Intellectual Property Office (IPO).
##Must be renewed every 10 years.
#[https://www.gov.uk/copyright Copyright] protects business’ work for 70 years, to prevent others from using it without permission. It is automatic (you don’t need to apply) when you create literary/dramatic work, software, web content and broadcasts. Unless they have your permission to do so, others can’t copy, sell your work or put it online.
##A set of exclusive rights given to creators of original ideas, information or other intellectual works.
##Copyright material can only be copied, used or recreated with the owner’s permission.
##Copyright protection is automatic and no registration is needed.
##The work is often marked with the © symbol, used alongside the creator’s name and the date.
##Work is still protected even without the © symbol.
##Copyright does not protect the ideas for a piece of work.
##Copyright lasts for 70 years for most types of written work.
##Photographs are copyrighted for 25 years.
#Registered Designs gives the designer ownership rights for the appearance of a product.
##Protects distinctive product shape, pattern or decoration.
##Protects distinctive visual features e.g. lines, contours, colours, materials.
##The design must be new and original.
##Must have a unique character, not resemble an existing design.
##Must be registered with the Intellectual Property Office (IPO).
##Must be renewed every 5 years.
#[https://www.gov.uk/design-right Design rights] automatically protect protect the creator of a design (unless a 3rd party commissions the work) for 10 years after the designs are created, to stop people copying your designs. While one does not need to register, doing to provides better protection.
##Design rights protect the configuration or shape of a product.
##They can be used to prevent copying of an original design without permission.
##Design rights do not protect the 2D aspects of the design, e.g. patterns.
##Design rights can be bought, sold or licensed.
##They stay in force for 10 years after first marketing of the product (or 15 years after creating the design).
##For the first 5 years, others are prevented from copying the design.
##For the remaining time the design is subject to a licence of right.
##Design rights only apply in the UK.
#Patents are expensive and difficult to obtain, but they provide a way to protect an invention. A patent-holder can take legal action against anyone who makes, uses or sells your invention without your permission. Large corporations like Adobe hold many patents for different parts of their products to ensure they have a competitive advantage.
##Granted by the government, they offer strong protection.
##Difficult to obtain, involving long, expensive, technical processes.
##Inventors must publicise all details of the invention.
##Patent lawyers are often employed to write a strong patent.
##Protect against copying the technical and functional aspects of a design.
##Can cover how a device works and what materials are used.
##Protect designs and inventions for 20 years.
##The invention must be new.
##It must have an inventive step that is not obvious to someone with technical knowledge.
##The invention must be capable of being made.

==3.5a. Understand wider issues relating to the selection of energy sources, storage, transmission and utilisation in order to select them appropriately for use.==
#Energy sources:
##Solar Energy.
##Wind Energy.
##Geothermal Energy.
##Hydrogen Energy.
##Tidal Energy.
##Wave Energy.
##Hydroelectric Energy.
##Biomass Energy.
#Click [here https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/different-energy-sources.php] to read more about these sources.

==Energy storage==
#Energy storage. Energy storage systems, also known as batteries or thermal stores, allow you to capture heat or electricity when it is readily available, typically from a renewables system, and save it until a time when it is useful to you.

==Energy transmission==
#Electric power transmission is the bulk movement of electrical energy from a generating site, such as a power plant, to an electrical substation. The interconnected lines which facilitate this movement are known as a transmission network.

==Energy utilisation==
#Energy utilization focuses on technologies that can lead to new and potentially more efficient ways of using electricity in residential, commercial and industrial settings—as well as in the transportation sector.

==How can skills and knowledge from other subjects areas, including mathematics and science, inform decisions in product design==
==3.6a. Demonstrate an understanding of the need to incorporate knowledge from other experts and subjects to inform design and manufacturing decisions, including the areas of science and mathematics==
#When creating ambitious new products, teams of engineers, computer scientists, physicists and mathematicians will be required to work together. Each brings a unique perspective to help develop the design to be optimal – the computer scientist might advise on a better smartphone user-interface or way to make the product work more intuitively. The physicist may be able to suggest a design modification to make an engine part more lightweight and stronger at the same time. The mathematician may be able to identify a way to make a 3D printer operate more rapidly by suggesting an improved algorithm.

==3.6b. Understand how undertaking primary and secondary research and being able to interpret technical data and information from specialist websites and publications supports design development==
#Primary research is that which the engineering team conduct themselves, such as an interview with users of an existing system or watching users of said system using their current system. This has the advantage of providing a ‘feel’ for the problem to be solved.
#Secondary research is the process of gathering data that has already been produced: Company reports, web searches or datasheets for electronics parts. This allows users to learn about new design approaches, technological developments or the release of new parts which may be useful in designing a new system.

==Practice Question==
#Designers and manufacturers should consider the social footprint and the ecological footprint of any materials they use.
##Describe how a social footprint is created by the manufacture of a product. [2]
##Describe the ecological footprint that results when using timber in products. [4]
##Discuss how a lifecycle assessment (LCA) would be carried out on a domestic refrigerator. Make reference to the following stages of the product’s life in your answer:
###manufacture;
###use;
###end of life. [8]
#DesEng AS Practice paper 1, Q3.

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